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Clearly, the Acropolis is the crown jewel of Athens, Greece. The ancient citadel of the city contains several buildings of architectural and historical importance. The Acropolis is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
*I realize this post is eternal. It’s so long even the table of contents needs a table of contents! Joking aside, I don’t expect anyone to read it cover to cover. Please use the table of contents below to jump to what you’re looking for. I want you to be able to find everything in one place rather than having to jump from post to post.
Admission to the Acropolis
Tickets to the slopes and the summit of the Acropolis cost €20 from April through October and €10 from November through March (as of July 2023). Since September 2023, all tickets are on a timed entry and can be purchased online. Visitors are requested to arrive 30 minutes before the time slot they’ve chosen.
A combo ticket granting admission to several other archaeological sites in Athens along with the Acropolis is €30. To avoid wasting time waiting in line, buy your combo ticket at another archaeological site that isn’t so crowded, such as Hadrian’s Library or the Agora. As far as I know, combo tickets don’t have timed entry restrictions for the Acropolis (as of July 2023). Also, it’s not worth buying the combo tickets during the winter months. The price of the combo ticket is the same year-round and there are reduced admissions from November through March for all the sites included on it.
Entrances
There are two entrances. The west entrance is the main entrance to the summit of the Acropolis. The southeast entrance is the lower entrance to the south slope. It’s easier to use the west entrance and see the summit first, then pass through the upper entrance to the south slope and walk down. The only negative is that the west entrance is usually much more crowded.
Tips for Visiting the Acropolis
I’ve been to the Acropolis several times. In my experience, the best time of day to visit is after 4pm. Chances are, it will be much less crowded and you may be able to walk right in. In the morning, the queues just to get in can be ridiculous, especially if there are cruise ships in port. Plus, the sun is perfect for photos later in the afternoon.
During summer, it can be extremely hot. People have been known to pass out. Take plenty of water, a hat, and wear sunscreen. Buy your water before making your way up. Vendors take advantage of tourists!
I highly recommend hiring a guide. While the information at the top is decent, you can get a lot more out of your visit with a guide. They’ll even show you the best spots to take photos and may even be able to sneak you in past the crowds. Contact me and I’ll put you in touch with an excellent licensed guide. It’s not cheap, but I guarantee it will be worth it.
Finally, take your time and enjoy it! There’s a lot to see, both on the summit and the slopes, and rushing through really diminishes the experience. A lot of people go up to get their Instagram shots not thinking twice about the significance of the place and they miss out.
History of the Acropolis
The Acropolis rises 150 meters (490 feet) above sea level and has a surface area of about three hectares (7.4 acres). It has a long and storied history
Early History
The Acropolis has been inhabited since at least the 6th millennium BC. The earliest trace of a structure was a Mycenaean megaron dating to the 13th century BC.
The wall around the Acropolis was first built during the Mycenaean period. It measures up to 10 meters high and from 3.5 to 6 meters thick and served as the first line of defense for the hill until the 5th century. The wall was reinforced and enlarged several times after the Mycenaean period.
Ancient Greek and Roman Periods
In the middle of the 6th century BC, Peisitratos (c. 600 – 527 BC) built the first temple on the Acropolis where the current Parthenon sits. Construction on the much larger Old Parthenon started in 488 BC, but it was destroyed during the Second Persian invasion of Greece from 480 to 479 BC.
The Acropolis we see today was constructed under Pericles (c. 495 – 429 BC) in the middle of the 5th century BC. During this period, which is referred to as the Golden Age of Athens, the Parthenon was rebuilt and other temples were added. Funding for the program came from the treasury of the Athenian League, which was kept in the opisthodomos of the Parthenon.
The Hellenistic and Roman periods saw many temples repaired and some monuments added to the Acropolis. This includes the Odeon of Herodes Atticus in 161.
Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Periods
At the end of the 6th century, the Byzantines converted the Parthenon into a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. From the 13th through 15th centuries, the Latins used the Acropolis as their administrative center. The Parthenon was their cathedral and the Propylaia was part of the ducal palace.
In the 15th century, the Ottomans turned the Acropolis into a fortress. The Parthenon was their military headquarters and they used part of it as a mosque, complete with a minaret. It was severely damaged when gunpowder exploded after being hit by an artillery shot during a siege by the Venetians in 1687.
Modern Period
During the Greek War of Independence, sieges by the Greeks from 1821 to 1822 and the Ottomans from 1826 to 1827 caused heavy damage to the buildings. Between 1835 and 1854, all Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman structures were cleared in an attempt to restore the Acropolis to its original form. Archaeologists carried out further restorations between 1894 and 1940. In 1941, the Nazi flag was raised on the Acropolis to mark the beginning of the Axis occupation of Greece, which lasted until 1944. The Acropolis became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987, and its treasures are on display at the Acropolis Museum.
Acropolis Restoration Project
The Acropolis Restoration Project began in 1975 to “reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction from military actions, and misguided past restorations”. Archaeologists collected and identified over 24,000 fragments from the summit and slopes. They then restored as much as possible using original material and new Pentelic marble. Restoration was made reversible in case future archaeologists decide to make changes.
Stairway to the Summit
The only way to reach the summit of the Acropolis is via a stairway on the west side of the hill. Visitors pass a handful of important structures and monuments on the way up. The stairway is dated sometime between 42 and 52 AD, during the reign of Roman Emperor Claudius.
Beulé Gate
The Beulé Gate, or the West Gate, is at the lowest point of the stairway. It serves as the modern tourist exit from the summit. It was built in the 3rd century during the Roman period and incorporated into the Late Roman Wall. Archaeologists date its construction to either slightly before or around ten years after the Sack of Athens by the Heruli in 267.
The gate was almost entirely built using material from the Choragic Monument of Nikias on the south slope of the Acropolis. The dedicatory inscription of the monument is on the entablature.
At some point, rooms were added to the inside of the Beulé Gate to shield guards and visitors from the weather. In the 11th century, an upper floor was built for better protection of the entrance. The gate was in use until the Frankish occupation in the 13th century. The Ottomans incorporated it into a large bastion in the 15th century, and knowledge of the gate was lost by the 19th century.
The Beulé Gate is about 23 meters (75 feet) wide. It consists of two towers that project five meters (16 feet) outward from the structure. The towers are connected to walls reaching the terraces above. Because of their poor state of preservation, archaeologists added buttresses for support.
The door is set in a marble wall and aligned with the Propylaia. It’s 3.87 meters (12.7 feet) high and 1.89 meters (6.2 feet) wide.
Name
The Beulé gate is named for French archaeologist Charles Ernest Beulé (1826-1874), who discovered the gate while excavating the approach to the Propylaia in 1852. He was charged with removing medieval and modern structures from the Propylaia and believed there was a second gate. Most archaeologists disagreed with his theory, but he gained permission from Greek archaeologist Kyriakos Pittakis (1798-1863) to conduct a search. The discovery boosted his reputation and Beulé became a celebrity in France.
Monument of Agrippa
Next, on the north side of the stairway is the Monument of Agrippa. Also known as the Pedestal of Agrippa, it was likely built around 178 BC to commemorate the victory of King Eumenes II of Pergamon in a chariot race during the Panathenaic Games. It originally held a bronze life-size statue of a chariot with four horses driven by Eumenes II and/or his brother, Attalus II.
Sometime between 27 BC and 12 BC, Athenians rededicated the monument. They removed the chariot and erected a statue of Marcus Agrippa (c. 63 BC – 12 BC) in its place to honor him for becoming consul for a third time. Agrippa was an important benefactor of the city and was responsible for the construction of the Odeon of Agrippa in the Agora. It’s unknown when the Agrippa statue disappeared.
The Monument of Agrippa is made of gray Hymettian marble, with Pentelic marble on the base and crown. It’s 8.9 meters high. An inscription on the western face reads:
“The deme (dedicated the monument) to Marcus Agrippa son of Lucius, thrice a consul, its benefactor”
Temple of Athena Nike
Opposite the Monument of Agrippa is the Temple of Athena Nike (Ναός Αθηνάς Νίκης). It’s perched atop a bastion that guarded the southwest corner of the Acropolis since the Mycenaean period in the 13th century BC. The bastion sits to the southwest of the Propylaia.
History
The Temple of Athena Nike was built as part of the building program on the Acropolis initiated by Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens. It was designed by ancient Greek architect Kallikrates and dedicated to Athena Nike, the protector of the city who offered the Athenians victory in their battles. Construction was underway by 449 BC and it was completed between 427 and 424 BC.
The temple was untouched for centuries until it was completed dismantled by the Ottomans in 1686 for material to construct a bastion in front of the Propylaia. This was to fortify the Acropolis in preparation of a Venetian siege led by Francesco Morosini (1619-1694).
Architecture
The Temple of Athena Nike was made of Pentelic marble. It measures 8 meters (26 feet) long by 5.5 meters (18 feet) wide and 7 meters (23 feet) tall. There are four Ionic columns on both its east and west sides. Inside was a wooden cult statue of Athena Nike. Part of the temple and the remains of an earlier shrine dating to the 6th century BC are in a basement space in the bastion.
The temple’s frieze was decorated on three sides with sculptures depicting famous Athenian victories. The victory over the Persians at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC was on the south frieze while the north frieze depicted Athenian warriors engaged with a cavalry. The west frieze likely depicted the Athenian massacre of the Corinthians. The east frieze featured the assembly of the Olympian gods.
Sculptures on the east pediment depicted Gigantomachy, the battle between gods and giants. Amazonomachy, battle between Athenians and Amazons, was depicted on the west pediment. The corners of the pediments were also decorated with gold-plated bronze acroteria.
Restoration
Architectural pieces of the Temple of Athena Nike were recovered when the Ottoman bastion in front of the Propylaia was dismantled in 1834. Danish architect Christian Hansen (1803-1883) and German architect Eduard Schaubert (1804-1860) studied the fragments and reconstructed the temple between 1835 and 1845. It was restored between 1935 and 1940.
The Temple of Athena Nike was dismantled and restored between 2000 and 2010 to repair damage and structural problems from earlier restorations. Archaeologists successfully installed a new support system and reintegrated original architectural fragments into the structure. The original frieze was relocated to the Acropolis Museum and replaced with copies.
Propylaia
At the top of the stairway is the Propylaia (Προπύλαια), which is the monumental gateway to the summit of the Acropolis. It was part of the building program on the Acropolis initiated by Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens.
The Propylaia was built between 437 and 432 BC by ancient Greek architect Mnesikles and is his only known building. Construction was interrupted by the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War and the original plan was never carried out.
Architecture
The Propylaia has a central building with two wings. The central building has six Doric columns each on its east and west façades. A wall with five doorways divides it into two sections. The western half is divided into three aisles by two lonic colonnades, with three columns each supporting the ceiling. The marble ceiling is made of beams and coffered slabs that were decorated with paint.
The north wing of the Propylaia may have served as a banquet and recreation hall for worshippers. According to Greek traveler Pausanias (c. 110 – c. 180), it housed paintings of mythological scenes and important ancient Greek battles. For this reason, it’s referred to as the Pinakotheke (Picture Gallery). The south wing was used as a porch to access the Temple of Athena Nike.
Later History
During the Byzantine period, near the end of the 6th century, the south wing of the Propylaia was converted to a small Christian basilica. The central building became a church dedicated to the Taxiarches in the 10th century.
During the Frankish occupation the entire structure was fortified. Starting in the late 14th century it was used as the Ducal Palace by the Florentine Acciaioli family. The Frankish Tower was built on the south wing at the same time.
During the Ottoman occupation, the Propylaia was used as a powder magazine and battery. Around 1640, it was struck by either lighting or a cannonball which ignited the gunpowder stored there, causing heavy damage.
Restoration
Starting in 1834, the medieval and Ottoman additions were cleared from the Propylaia and it was restored to its original look. The Frankish Tower survived until 1875. A second major restoration took place under Nikolaos Balanos (1869-1943) from 1909 to 1917. The most recent restoration was carried out between 2002 and 2015. It repaired the structural problems caused by the Balanos restoration and incorporated original fragments that had since been identified.
Summit of the Acropolis
The summit of the Acropolis contains the remains of the most sacred temples of the ancient city as well as a few minor structure.
Shrine of Athena Hygieia and Hygieia
First, there’s a small shrine on the southeast corner of the Propylaia that’s very easy to miss. It was dedicated to Athena Hygieia and Hygieia, the daughter of Asclepius, the god of medicine. All that’s left is part of the altar and the cylindrical marble base of a bronze statue of Athena Hygieia.
The statue was made by Pyrrhus in the 5th century BC. It’s likely that the people of Athens dedicated it in relation to the Plague of Athens that struck the city in 430 BC.
Statue of Athena Promachos
Directly east of the Propylaia is the base of the statue of Athena Promachos. This colossal bronze statue was made by Phidias, likely at the bronze foundry on the southwest slope of the Acropolis, sometime between 475 and 450 BC. It was dedicated to Athena for her contribution to the victories in the Greco-Persian Wars and financed from the spoils of the wars. The statue stood about nine meters high and took about nine years to construct. The base measures five meters by five meters and was repaired during the Roman period, probably during the reign of Roman Emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC or early 1st century AD.
The exact form of the statue is unknown, but accounts describe Athena dressed in a robe and standing with her right hand outstretched holding a Nike or an owl. According to Pausanias, her shield was decorated with scenes from the battle between the Centaurs and Lapiths, sculpted by Mys based on drawings by painter Parrhasius.
The statue of Athena Promachos was shipped to Constantinople (now Istanbul) sometime in the 5th century. There are a few stories as to what happened to it. According to Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates (1155-1217), the statue was placed in the Forum of Constantine and destroyed by rioters in 1203 during the Fourth Crusade. Another version states it was placed in the Hippodrome and destroyed during the Crusaders’ Sack of Constantinople in 1204 because the locals considered the outstretched hand beckoned the enemy.
Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia
South of the Propylaia and west of the Parthenon was the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia, or the Brauronion. It was associated with the Sanctuary of Artemis in Brauron, a town on the eastern coast of Attica. The sanctuary was built in the 6th century BC during the reign of Peisistratos. It was dedicated to Artemis, the goddess of nature and hunting as well as the protector of girls, pregnant women, and mothers with newborns.
All that’s left of the sanctuary are parts of walls cut into the rock around 430 BC. It consisted of two porticos on the south and east sides and a flight of rock cut steps to the northeast. The west side incorporated part of the Mycenaean wall built in the 13th century BC. A small temple holding the cult statue of Artemis was likely on the west side along with an altar. According to Pausanias, the statue was made by Praxiteles around 346 BC. The head from the statue is on display in the Acropolis Museum.
Chalkotheke
The Chalkotheke was attached to the east side of the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia. It was a rectangular building measuring 43 x 20 meters with a Doric portico along the façade. It housed bronze vessels and utensils used in religious processions as well as weapons. The Chalkotheke dates to roughly the middle of the 5th century BC while the portico was added shortly after 400 BC.
Parthenon
The Parthenon (Παρθενώνας) is what most people come to the Acropolis to see. After passing through the Propylaia, visitors reach the summit and get an incredible first glimpse at the Parthenon.
Before the Parthenon
Two temples previously stood on the site of the Parthenon.
Hekatompedon
The first was the Hekatompedon, which was built between 570 and 550 BC by Peisitratos. It was dismantled around 500 BC to make way for the larger Old Parthenon, for which construction started around 488 BC. Architectural and sculptural elements of the Hekatompedon were found in the the southern part of the Mycenaean wall around the Acropolis. Sculptures from the west pediment are on display at the Acropolis Museum.
Old Parthenon
The Old Parthenon was still unfinished when it was leveled in the Achaemenid Destruction of Athens, which occurred during the Second Persian invasion of Greece from 480 to 479 BC. Its foundations were discovered by German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1853-1940) during excavations between 1885 and 1890. They can be seen underneath the platform of the current Parthenon.
History of the Parthenon
Like the rest of the Acropolis, the Parthenon has a rich and storied history.
Construction of the Parthenon
The Parthenon was the most important structure of the building program on the Acropolis initiated by Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens. It was built between 447 and 438 BC with sculptural decorations completed in 432 BC. It was dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Virgin).
The architects were Kallikrates and Ictinus, while Athenian sculptor Phidias, a friend of Pericles, carried out most of the decorative works. This included the 12-meter high gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos that stood in the cella. It was lost sometime in the first millennium.
Parthenon in Late Antiquity
The Parthenon was revered throughout antiquity for its architecture and importance. It survived as a temple for nearly 1,000 years, but had its fair share of trouble during late antiquity. In the 3rd century, a major fire broke out and destroyed the roof and much of the interior. It was also heavily damaged during the Sack of Athens by the Heruli in 267. In the 4th century, a new roof was installed to cover the sanctuary. Finally, most likely between 481 and 484, it was closed as a temple under Roman Emperor Zeno.
Parthenon as a Christian Church
The Parthenon was converted to a Christian church in the late 5th century. It was consecrated as the Church of Panagia Atheniotissa (Church of Our Lady of Athens). The entrance was moved to the west side and an altar and iconostasis was placed at an apse constructed where the pronaos once existed. The cella became the nave and the opisthodomos became the narthex. Icons were painted on the walls.
The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage site in the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople, Ephesus, and Thessaloniki. It was then converted to a Catholic church in 1205 during the Latin period, remaining as such for over 250 years. A bell tower was built at the southwest corner of the cella and vaulted tombs were built under the floor.
Parthenon as an Ottoman Mosque
In June 1458, the Florentine army defending the Parthenon surrendered to the Ottomans, who may have briefly restored the temple to the Greek Orthodox Church. Sometime between 1460 and the end of the 15th century, however, they converted it to a mosque. The apse was repurposed with a mihrab and the Latin bell tower was extended upwards to become a minaret. The iconostasis was removed and the icons were whitewashed.
By the late 17th century, the Ottomans had fortified the Acropolis and were using the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine. On September 26, 1687, a Venetian bomb fired from the Hill of the Muses (Philopappos Hill) hit the south side of the temple, blowing out the central section and destroying the wall of the cella. Around 300 people were killed in the explosion.
Looting of Sculptures
Over the next 150 years, rubble from the temple was looted for building material, and antiques collectors removed many of the sculptures. The most notorious of these looters was Thomas Bruce (1766-1841), the 7th Earl of Elgin, who between 1801 and 1812 removed about half of the frieze, 15 metopes, and 17 sculptures from the pediment. The Elgin Marbles, as they’re known, were shipped to London via Malta. Lord Elgin had intended to use them to establish a private museum but later sold them to the British Museum where they currently sit on display. Greece has been campaigning for their return for several decades.
Architecture of the Parthenon
The Parthenon was made of Pentelic marble. It measures 30.86 meters wide, 69.5l meters long, and 15 meters high. The outer colonnade contains 8 columns on the short sides and 17 columns on the long sides, with the columns on the corners counted twice. An inner colonnade on the short sides contains six columns.
The interior of the temple was divided into the pronaos, the cella, the opisthodomos (back room), and the opisthonaos. The opisthodomos, on the west side, served as the treasury. It contained contributions from the Delian League.
Sculptures
The Parthenon was richly decorated with sculptures, most likely executed under the direction of Phidias. There were a total of 92 metopes above the columns. The east and west sides each had 14 metopes while the north and south sides each had 32. They depict Amazonomachy on the west side, the Fall of Troy on the north side, Gigantomachy on the east side, and the battle between the Centaurs and the Lapiths on the south side.
The pediments contained about 50 sculptures. The east pediment depicted the birth of Athena while the west pediment depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon. Every figure on the west pediment had a fully formed back, which illustrates the depth of detail the sculptors put into their work.
The Parthenon Frieze depicted the procession of the festival of the Great Panathenaea. Of the 160 meters (524 feet) of the original frieze, 128 meters (420 feet) survives. The rest was lost in the Venetian bombardment in 1687, but images exist thanks to illustrations by French artist Jacques Carrey (1649-1726) in 1674. The majority of the frieze is in the British Museum while the Acropolis Museum displays much of the rest.
Restoration
Restoration of the Parthenon began in 1835, when all Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman elements were removed. A large-scale restoration took place between 1900 and 1930, but the use of reinforced concrete and iron clamps caused serious structural problems over time.
In 1983, modern restoration efforts began and continue to this day. Metopes and parts of the frieze that remained on the temple were moved to the Acropolis Museum and replaced with copies. The northern colonnade was completely restored, incorporating original architectural fragments in the process. The pronaos has been partially restored.
Since 2011, the walls of the cella are in the process of being rebuilt to their form just after the 1687 explosion. The restoration of the west side began that same year, with work on the west pediment starting in 2017.
Old Temple of Athena
The space between the Parthenon and Erechtheion once held the Old Temple of Athena. Dedicated to Athena Polias, it was built between 525 BC and 500 BC on the site of a Mycenaean palace and replaced a smaller 8th century BC Geometric temple. It was leveled in the Achaemenid Destruction of Athens, which occurred during the Second Persian invasion of Greece from 480 to 479 BC. Many of its fragments were incorporated into the north wall of the Acropolis.
The Old Temple of Athena had six columns along the front and 12 along the sides. It measured 43.44 meters by 21.43 meters. One pediment featured sculptures representing Gigantomachy while the other depicted a pride of lions devouring a bull. The foundations of the temple were discovered by Wilhelm Dörpfeld during excavations in 1885.
Erechtheion
The Erechtheion (Ἐρέχθειον), which is one of the most sacred sites on the Acropolis. It houses the salt spring that appeared when Poseidon struck a rock with his trident during his contest with Athena over the patronage of the city. It also houses the trident marks and part of the tombs of Cecrops and Erechtheus. The temple takes its name from Erechtheus, the mythical king of Athens attached to Poseidon.
Construction of the Erechtheion
Construction on the Erechtheion started either before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC or after the Peace of Nikias in 421 BC. It was completed in 406 BC. The identity of the architect is unknown.
The Erechtheion was repaired after a fire in the 1st century BC. It was heavily damaged sometime in the 3rd or 4th century, either during the Sack of Athens by the Heruli in 267 or a later raid by the Visigoths. It was later repaired in the 4th century. During the Byzantine period, in the late 6th or early 7th century, it was converted to a three-aisled basilica church.
During the Latin period, the church was deconsecrated and the temple became a residence for the Catholic Bishop of Athens, who held mass in the Church of Panagia Atheniotissa at the Parthenon. The Frankish North Addition and a Venetian vault in the north porch were added at this time.
Its use during the Ottoman period is somewhat disputed. It definitely continued as a residence, but its description as a harem has not been found in any Ottoman sources. The Ottomans added masonry and made alterations to the interior. The west façade and the Porch of the Caryatids were destroyed in the Second Siege of the Acropolis from 1826 to 1827 during the Greek Revolution.
Architecture
The Erechtheion is unique among ancient Greek temples as an asymmetrical structure. The main building consists of a cella divided into two sections by an interior wall. The eastern section was dedicated to Athena Polias and contained the xoanon, a wooden cult statue of Athena. The western section was divided into three parts dedicated to the cult of Poseidon-Erechtheus, Hephaestus, and the hero Butes. The eastern section was at least three meters higher than the western section, but with an identical ceiling height.
The north porch features six Ionic columns. It was accessed via a door on the north side of the cella. A small door to the south led to the Pandroseion, which held the tomb of Cecrops, the altar of Zeus Herkeios, and the sacred olive tree of Athena.
Finally, on the south side is the Porch of the Caryatids, or Porch of the Maidens. Six statues of young females figures, or Caryatids, serve as columns supporting the roof. The porch covers part of Cecrops’ tomb, and the only entrance is via an L-shaped stairway from inside the cella. There has been much debate over its function and significance.
Sculptures
The Erechtheion was richly decorated with two sets of sculptures. At the upper part of the temple is a frieze of gray Eleusinian stone decorated with figures made of white Parian marble. About 80% of them survive and are now on display at the Acropolis Museum.
The other sculptures are the aforementioned Caryatids. All six were sculpted with subtle differences and have lost their lower arms.
One of the Caryatid statues was removed by Thomas Bruce along with several sculptures of the Parthenon. The other five Caryatids were removed and relocated to the old Acropolis Museum in 1979 for protection from pollution and the elements. They’re now on display at the current Acropolis Museum waiting to be reunited with their “sister”.
Restoration of the Erechtheion
The Erechtheion was excavated, studied, and restored by Kyriakos Pittakis between 1837 and 1846. During this time, all Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman additions were removed. Nikolaos Balanos carried out further studies and restoration work from 1902 to 1909.
During a project between 1979 and 1987, the wall and the ceilings of the north and south porches were restored and original architectural fragments were incorporated into the structure. The Caryatid statues were replaced with copies. The first column from the north on the east porch, which was removed by Lord Elgin, was replaced with a copy. Finally, in 2014 and 2015, parts of the interior foundations were backfilled to reveal the remains of the Byzantine basilica.
Pandroseion
The Pandroseion, which was later partially incorporated into the Erechtheion, was located just north of the Old Temple of Athena. It was a sanctuary dedicated to Pandrosus, the daughter of mythical king Cecrops. It encompassed the altar of Zeus Herkeios, the sacred olive tree that grew when Athena struck the rock with her spear, and the tomb of Cecrops. To the east was a small opening into the salty spring that appeared when Poseidon struck his trident.
The original appearance of the Pandroseion is unknown, but it was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC. It was rebuilt featuring a paved courtyard and an Ionic stoa on its north side. Its appearance was further altered with the construction of the Erechtheion in the late 5th century BC. New entrances connected it to the north porch as well as the west wall of the Erechtheion. The Porch of the Caryatids covers part of the tomb of Cecrops. The olive tree seen today was planted in the early 20th century.
Temple of Rome and Augustus
East of the Parthenon are the remains of the Temple of Rome and Augustus. It was built sometime between 19 and 17 BC, probably to coincide with the visit of Augustus to Athens. It was a small circular temple with nine Ionic columns and a conical roof made of white marble. There was no interior wall, and it measured 8.6 meters in diameter and 7.3 meters high.
The Temple of Rome and Augustus was the only Roman temple on the Acropolis and the only temple in Athens dedicated to the Roman imperial cult. The people of Athens built it to calm the negative feelings between the city and Augustus, as they had supported his rival, Mark Antony, during the Roman civil wars.
The dedicatory inscription on the temple read:
The People (dedicated this temple) to the Goddess Roma and Sebastos Caesar (Augustus), when the general of the hoplites was Pammenes, son of Zenon of Marathon, the priest of the goddess Rome and Sebastos Soter on the Acropolis; when the priestess of Athena Polias was Megiste, daughter of Asklepiades from the deme of Halai; when the Eponymous Archon was Areios, son of Dorion from Paiania.
Old Acropolis Museum
South of the Temple of Augustus and Rome you might notice a defunct building now serving as a bathroom. That was the old Acropolis Museum, which was once one of the main archaeological museums in Athens. It was built between 1865 and 1874 by Greek architect Panagis Kalkos (1818-1875) to hold sculptures and bronze artifacts excavated on the Acropolis. Greek architect Patroklos Karantinos (1903-1976) expanded and modernized the building in the 1950s.
In 1974, Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis (1907-1998) proposed the construction of a new museum. Design contests were held and the grounds of the former military hospital and gendarmerie barracks in Makrygianni, just south of the Acropolis, were chosen as the site. The old museum closed in 2007 and the collection moved to the new Acropolis Museum, which was built between 2002 and 2007. It finally opened on June 20, 2009.
Flagpole
Finally, one of the highlights of visiting the Acropolis is standing at the flagpole at the east end and taking in the spectacular views of Athens. Visitors are able to spot lots of iconic landmarks and neighborhoods.
World War II
Besides having incredible views of Athens, the flagpole also hosted an important event in modern Greek history. On April 27, 1941, German soldiers raised the Nazi flag on the Acropolis to mark the beginning of the Axis occupation of Greece. A little over a month later on May 31, Manolis Glezos (1922-2020) and Lakis Santas (1922-2011) climbed up the Acropolis and tore down the Nazi flag. It was one of the first acts of resistance. They not only inspired other Greeks to resist but also became international anti-Nazi heroes. In 1944, Greek Prime Minister Georgios Papandreou (1888-1968) celebrated the liberation from the Nazis on the Acropolis.
For their daring act, both men were sentenced to death in absentia but weren’t identified until much later. Glezos, from Apeiranthos, Naxos, was arrested by German soldiers on March 24, 1942, and imprisoned and tortured. He was arrested again on April 21, 1943, by Italian soldiers and spent three months in jail. Finally, in 1944, Greek collaborators imprisoned and beat him for trying to escape. From after the war until 1971, Glezos spent a total of 11 years 4 months in prison and 4 years 6 months in exile for his left-wing political beliefs.
Santas, from Patras, was never apprehended by the Nazis but suffered a similar post-war fate to Glezos because of his political beliefs. He was sent into internal exile on Ikaria in 1946, then to Psyttaleia in 1947, and finally to prison on Makronisos in 1948. He managed to escape to Italy and made his way to Canada where he was granted political asylum. Santas lived in Canada until 1962, then returned to Greece to spend the rest of his life.
South Slope of the Acropolis
A lot of people visit the summit of the Acropolis and think they’ve seen it all. Well, there’s a lot more to it than that. The south slope of the Acropolis contains several important features that are worth taking the time to see.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus is a theatre on the south slope of the Acropolis. It’s best seen from a viewing platform on the way up to the summit while the façade can be seen from ground level.
History
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was built during the Roman period between 160 and 169. It was donated to the city by Herodes Atticus (101-177) in memory of his wife, Appia Annia Regilla (125-160). The structure effectively replaced the Odeon of Agrippa in the Agora and was used for musical events and philosophical lectures.
The odeon was destroyed during the Sack of Athens by the Heruli in 267 and was never rebuilt. Instead, it was incorporated into the Late Roman fortification wall, which remained intact until 1877.
Kyriakos Pittakis conducted excavations at the site from 1847 to 1858. He cleared all medieval deposits, which had reached up to ten meters high.
Architecture
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus has a semicircular cavea with a diameter of 76 meters. There were 39 rows of marbles seats with a capacity for 6,000 spectators.
The orchestra, which is also semicircular, has a diameter of 19 meters and was paved with marble. The stage had a mosaic floor. The building originally had a roof made of cedar without using intermediate braces, which was a great architectural achievement.
Modern Use
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus started to be used for musical and theatrical performances in the 1930s. Regular use started in the 1950s, when it began to host the annual Athens Festival in 1955. At that time, the orchestra and stands were restored using Pentelic marble.
Notable artists who have performed at the odeon include Maria Callas, Luciano Pavarotti, Frank Sinatra, Elton John, Andrea Bocelli, Manos Hatzidakis, Mikis Theodorakis, the Foo Fighters, Diana Ross, and Yanni.
Bronze Foundries
The first point of interest walking down the south slope of the Acropolis are four bronze foundries. They were used from the 5th through 4th centuries BC to cast bronze statues. According to one theory, the Athena Promachos statue by Phidias was cast there in the 5th century BC.
The largest of the four, Foundry A was excavated in 1877 and 1963 and is now covered over. It had three entrance stairways and two separate facilities. Both consist of a base and a clay channel for the disposal of metal waste and melted wax used in casting.
Foundry D, just to the east under a shed, was excavated in 2006. It has a square base in the center and the southern section contains the remains of a mold for a statue. A 1.3 meter high brick wall stands on both the south and east sides. During excavation, thousands of mold fragments were discovered.
Inscriptions Shed
To the east of the foundries is the Inscriptions Shed, where it’s possible to see various plinths with inscriptions on them.
Temple of Themis
A few steps away is a cluster of minor structures with little to no information available. First is the base of the Temple of Themis. Behind it, up against the rock of the Acropolis is a Byzantine cistern. Next to the cistern are the remains of an Archaic fountain. The temple was dedicated to Themis, the goddess of justice, divine order, and law. It was mentioned by Greek traveler Pausanias.
Byzantine Cistern
South of the Temple of Themis is another Byzantine cistern. This one has a vaulted ceiling and sits next to the boundary stone of the Archaic fountain. There’s no information available for either.
Asclepeion of Athens
Further along the path is the Asclepeion of Athens. It was an ancient healing center and has been under restoration during all my visits to the Acropolis.
The Asclepeion of Athens was founded by Telemachos Acharneas in 419/418 BC, probably as a result of the Plague of Athens that devastated the city during the Peloponnesian War. The complex consisted of a temple and altar to Asclepius, a two-story Doric stoa, an Ionic Stoa, and a portico dating to the Roman period.
The Doric stoa was built in 300/299 BC to house overnight patients. It had 17 columns on its façade. The upper floor on the east side provided access to a sacred cave containing a spring, and on the west side to the Sacred Bothros, which functioned as a sacrificial pit.
The Ionic stoa, which sits on the west side of the complex, is dated to the last quarter of the 5th century BC. It served as a dining hall and lodge for the priests of Asclepius and their visitors.
At the beginning of the 6th century, the Asclepeion was demolished and its material was used to build a large three-aisled Christian basilica. In the 11th and 13th centuries, two small Byzantine churches replaced the basilica and one of them functioned as part of a monastery. Since 2002, archaeologists have been working to restore the west end of the façade of the Doric stoa, the room of the sacred cave, and the Temple of Asclepius.
Stoa of Eumenes
On the level of the slope below the Asclepeion is the Stoa of Eumenes. It spans between the Odeon of Herodes Atticus and the Theatre of Dionysus. It was donated to the city of Athens by Eumenes II, the King of Pergamon, and built sometime between 170 and 160 BC. The stoa has been under restoration during all my visits to the Acropolis.
The Stoa of Eumenes offered protection to spectators of the Theatre of Dionysus during bad weather. In the 2nd century, it was connected to the Odeon of Herodes Atticus. The stoa was demolished around 260 and its material was used to construct the Valerian Wall.
The stoa measures 163 meters long and 17.65 meters wide. Its façade had 64 Doric columns while the inner colonnade contained 32 Ionic columns. The upper level had 64 Ionic double semi-columns and 32 interior Pergamene columns. Visible today is the retaining wall built with semicircular arches and reinforced with buttresses. Its purpose was to hold the embankment and support the Peripatos, the ancient road around the Acropolis.
Choragic Monument of Nikias
East of the Stoa of Eumenes are the remains of the Choragic Monument of Nikias. It was built in 320/319 BC to commemorate the choregos Nikias. He won the boys’ chorus in the Great Dionysia during the archonship of Neaichmos. Its placement away from the Street of Tripods, where most choragic monuments were built, is unusual.
The Choragic Monument of Nikias was built in the form of a temple, with six Doric columns on the façade, pediments on its narrow sides, and a small cella. It was demolished sometime in the 3rd century and its materials were used to construct the central part of the Beulé Gate. The original location of the monument wasn’t discovered until 1889, when Wilhelm Dörpfeld carried out excavations in the area.
Theatre of Dionysus
The Theatre of Dionysus is one of the most interesting features of the south slope of the Acropolis. It’s considered the world’s first theatre and the birthplace of the artistic concept of theatre. The works of Aeschylus (c. 525 – c. 455 BC), Sophocles (c. 497 – 406 BC), Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BC), and Euripides (c. 480 – c. 406 BC) were all performed there.
Origins
The Theatre of Dionysus developed as part of the Great Dionysia, which began sometime during the reign of Peisistratos in the 6th century BC. The festival was originally held in another location with choral and dance competitions as the main events. It was later moved to the natural grass amphitheater above the Sanctuary of Dionysus. Wooden stands were installed and the Theatre of Dionysus began to take shape.
In the 6th century BC, Thespis was the first ever person to appear on stage as an actor and not as himself. He’s credited with inventing the concept of tragedy and it became very popular. Eventually, a competition for the best tragic play became part of the Great Dionysia. The first documented tragic contest was won by Thespis in 534 BC. Comedy and satyr were added later.
History
In the middle of the 5th century BC under Pericles, the wooden seating was expanded and a stage building was constructed. The Odeon of Pericles was also built to the east. In the late 5th century BC, the theatre was renovated and extended, but work was interrupted by the Peloponnesian War. The stone theatre we see today was completed under Lycurgus (c. 390 – 324 BC) between 342 and 326 BC. It could seat between 17,000 and 19,000 people.
During the Roman period, in addition to theatrical performances, the theatre began hosting celebrations for the emperor. It was damaged during the Sack of Athens by the Heruli in 267 and promptly repaired. It ceased functioning in the 6th century when a Christian basilica was constructed at its eastern entrance. The orchestra served as the church’s courtyard. The theatre was eventually covered with earth over time and was excavated between 1862 and 1895. A restoration project started in 2005 to preserve the seating area.
Auditorium
The auditorium of the Theatre of Dionysus consists of 14 stairways dividing the seats into 13 sections. The bench seats are made of limestone blocks from Piraeus while the thrones are made of Pentelic marble. The throne for the priest of Dionysus is in the middle of the first row. The thrones also have names inscribed underneath the seats.
Stage Building
The first stage building of the Theatre of Dionysus was constructed in the middle of the 5th century BC and had a richly painted façade. Under Lycurgus, it was entirely rebuilt out of stone with a marble façade and two projecting wings with Doric colonnades. During the 2nd or 1st century BC, a Doric colonnade was added along the ground floor of the façade and an upper level was probably built.
The stage building underwent major changes during the Roman period, starting with the addition of rich architectural elements to the façade. This took place in 61 AD during the reign of Nero. Under Hadrian, monumental female statues and figures of satyrs representing Tragedy, Comedy, and Satyr were added. In the 4th century, the Bema of Phaedros was dismantled and moved to the theatre from an unknown location to adorn the front of the orchestra. The statues depict scenes from the life of Dionysus.
East Parados
The east parados (passage) was the main entrance to the Theatre of Dionysus. Priests and officials would use it to attend performances during the Great Dionysia. It was built in the 4th century under Lycurgus to support the stone seats of the auditorium and connect the theatre to the Street of Tripods. The entrance was originally through a wooden Doric gate that was replaced by a monumental marble propylon during the reign of Augustus in the late 1st century BC or early 1st century AD.
Bronze statues of the most famous poets lined the northern wall of the east parados. Posthumous statues of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were the first three, added around 330 BC as part of the building project under Lycurgus.
To the east was the statue of Menander (c. 342 – 290 BC), the most important representative of comedy. His statue was erected in 290 BC, immediately after he drowned while swimming off Piraeus. The base of his statue, which was discovered in 1862, contained the signatures of Kefisodotos and Timarchos, the sons of sculptor Praxiteles. The original bronze statue has been lost and a plaster copy is on display where it once stood.
The retaining wall of the east parados was reconstructed between 1996 and 2003. 174 new limestone blocks were brought in from Piraeus, 11 repairs were made for original ancient stones with missing parts, and 103 artificial conglomerate stones were created.
West Parados
The west parados was shorter than the east parados but also contained an identical monumental marble propylon added during the Roman period. Statues and dedicatory monuments lined the wall, including a statue of dramatic poet Astydamas erected in 340 BC.
The reconstruction of the retaining wall of the west parados took place between 2002 and 2005. 83 new limestone blocks were brought in from Piraeus, 13 repairs were made for original ancient stones with missing parts, and 37 artificial conglomerate stones were created.
Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos
High above the Theatre of Dionysus is the Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos. It was built in 320/319 BC to commemorate the choregos Thrasyllos for winning the men’s chorus for the tribe of Hippothontis. It was modified 50 years later when Thrasyllos’ son Thrasykles was agonothetes, or president, of the Great Dionysia.
The Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos was built in the form of a temple with two monumental doorways. The doors opened to a natural cave that was known to be sacred and may have been dedicated to Artemis and Apollo. Three bronze tripods would have originally stood atop the monument. They were later replaced with a statue of Dionysus, which was taken in 1802 by Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin, and is on display at the British Museum in London as part of the Elgin Marbles. The two Corinthian columns above the monument were placed there during the Roman period, also for the display of choragic tripods.
During the Byzantine period, the Church of Panagia Spiliotissa was built into the cave. The entire monument was destroyed in the Greek Revolution by an Ottoman bombardment under Kütahı Pasha during the Siege of the Acropolis in 1827. Much of the marble fragments were repurposed to repair a Byzantine church, now the Russian Orthodox Church of the Holy Trinity in Syntagma. Restoration of the monument began in 2002 based on 18th century drawings by Scottish archaeologist James Stuart (1713-1788) and English architect Nicholas Revett (1720-1804).
Sanctuary of Dionysus
The Sanctuary of Dionysus was an ancient Greek religious complex below the Theatre of Dionysus. It was founded in the 2nd half of the 6th century BC under Peisistratos and is the oldest complex on the south slope. T he festival of the Great Dionysia was celebrated there.
Street of Tripods
The Sanctuary of Dionysus opened to the Street of Tripods, leading from the sanctuary around to the north side of the Acropolis. Choragic monuments commemorating the winners of the contests of the Great Dionysia were erected along this ancient street, which partially exists today in the Plaka neighborhood. The only surviving monument is the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates.
Propylon
The complex was enclosed by a wall and entered through a propylon. The propylon was constructed in the 4th century BC replacing an earlier one, and only the foundations exist today. Sections of the precinct wall can be found around the sanctuary.
Stoa
The north side of the Sanctuary of Dionysus featured a stoa, probably of the Doric order, erected in the 4th century BC. It had one story and separated the complex from the Theatre of Dionysus to the north. Only the foundations and part of the north wall exist today.
Archaic Temple of Dionysus
At the southwest corner of the stoa was the Archaic Temple of Dionysus. It was a Doric temple built in the middle of the 6th century BC to house the wooden cult statue of Dionysus. The statue was transferred there from Eleutherae by the priest Pegasos. The temple was in use until at least the 2nd century.
The Archaic Temple of Dionysus measured approximately 13 by 8.5 meters. Only parts of the foundation and the northern and western walls exist today. The temple was excavated between 1882 and 1895 by Wilhelm Dörpfeld of the German Archaeological Institute. Further excavations took place in the 1960s and 1980s.
Later Temple of Dionysus
Just to the south is the Later Temple of Dionysus. It was built in the 2nd half of the 4th century BC under Lycurgus at the same time as the Theatre of Dionysus and the redevelopment of the sanctuary. According to Pausanias, it housed the chryselephantine statue of Dionysus by ancient Greek sculptor Alcamenes. The Later Temple was used simultaneously with the Archaic Temple.
The Later Temple of Dionysus was a Doric temple with four columns in front and one on the side walls. The pronaos was on the east and the cella on the west. The exterior walls measure 21.95 by 9.3 meters. Today, only the foundations and parts of the walls exist.
The Later Temple of Dionysus was excavated and studied in the 19th century by the Archaeological Society of Athens and the German Archaeological Institute. The site was cleaned and researched further from 1960 to 1962. Finally, in 2009, part of the remains were filled in with earth in order to protect them from deterioration.
Altar of Dionysus
Finally, southeast of the Later Temple is the Altar of Dionysus. Much of it has been covered for protection.
Odeon of Pericles
East of the Theatre of Dionysus was the Odeon of Pericles. It was built in 435 BC by Pericles to host the musical contests of the Panathenaea and is believed to be the first roofed theatre building devoted to the performing arts. It also provided shelter for the audience of the theatre in case of bad weather as well as a place for choral rehearsals.
The Odeon of Pericles was square in shape, covering an area of 4,000 square meters (43,000 square feet). The foundations measured 62.40 by 68.60 meters and it was originally built with timber from captured Persian ships. The structure had a square pyramid shaped roof supported by 90 pillars arranged in nine rows of ten. According to Pausanias, it was meant to resemble the tent of Xerxes I (c. 518 – 465 BC).
The original Odeon of Pericles burned down during the Siege of Athens by Roman general Sulla in 87 BC. It was later rebuilt by Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia, with M. Stallius and Menalippus as architects. Pausanias called it “the most magnificent of all the structures of the Greeks”. The Odeon of Pericles has not yet been fully excavated.
Chapel of Saint George Alexandrinos
The small Chapel of Saint George Alexandrinos (Άγιος Γεώργιος ο Αλεξανδρινός) sits on the site of the Odeon of Pericles. It was built in the 11th or 12th century during the Byzantine period and was destroyed during the Siege of the Acropolis in 1827. Greek defenders blew up the chapel after they lured Ottoman defenders to it. It was later rebuilt.
Church of Saint Paraskevi
At the southeast corner of the Sanctuary of Dionysus is the Church of Saint Paraskevi. It sits at the intersection of three ancient roads and was built of ancient marble spoils. The church was originally built in the late Byzantine period, and there were two later building phases.
The church suffered serious damage during the Siege of the Acropolis in 1827 and was replaced with a small chapel around 1860. Seen today are the remains of the second building phase in the 17th century.
Roadside Shrine
Across the road to the north of the Church of Saint Paraskevi is a small roadside shrine dating to the 5th century BC. It was dedicated to an unknown deity, likely Hecate or Hermes, and was discovered in 1961. Across the road to the east is the base of a Classical period monument.
Wall of Haseki
A few steps to the west of the roadside shrine, at the southwest corner of the Sanctuary of Dionysus, is part of the Wall of Haseki. It was built around Athens in 1778 by Ottoman governor Hacı Ali Haseki (d. 1795). Its original purpose was to protect the city from an Ottoman Muslim Albanian army, but it ended up an instrument of Haseki’s tyranny over the city.
The wall was about ten kilometers long and was completed in 108 days. Many ancient and medieval buildings were demolished for its construction. Haseki then presented the Athenians with a bill for the wall and placed guards at its seven gates to imprison them within the city. The Wall of Haseki was heavily damaged during the Siege of the Acropolis in 1827 and was completely demolished in 1834.
Shed of Exhibits
Next to the lower entrance to the south slope and Acropolis archaeological site is the Shed of Exhibits. It contains pieces of monuments, columns, and statues.
Roman Cistern
Outside the archaeological site along the pedestrian walkway of Dionysiou Areopagitou are a couple more structures. First, just south of the Odeon of Herodes Atticus, is a Roman cistern. It dates to the 2nd or 3rd century.
Sanctuary of Nymphe
Nearby is a sanctuary dedicated to Nymphe, the protector of marriage and wedding rites. Ancient Athenians would leave vessels used to transport water for their pre-nuptial purification baths and other nuptial-related objects there.
Statue of Maria Callas
Finally, across the street and completely unrelated to the Acropolis or ancient world, is a statue of Maria Callas (1923-1977). The American-born soprano was one of the greatest opera singers of all time. The statue was sculpted by Aphrodite Liti and unveiled in October 2021. In my personal opinion, it’s not a very stunning likeness of her. Apparently, not many others are too pleased with it, either.
North Slope of the Acropolis
The less visited north slope of the Acropolis contains a few more interesting elements. Unfortunately, it has been closed to the public since 2021. I’ll update with information and photos when I finally have a chance to visit.
Sanctuary of Aglauros
I’ve only been able to visit one feature of the north slope. If you follow the Peripatos past the Theatre of Dionysus, you’ll come to the Sanctuary of Aglauros. It’s the largest natural cave on the Acropolis, measuring 14 meters wide and 22 meters deep.
The discovery of an inscription on April 16, 1980, by Greek archaeologist Georgios Dontas (1923-2012), identified the cave as the Sanctuary of Aglauros. It sits to the east of the cave on a marble stele and is dated 247/246 BC. Aglauros was a daughter of Cecrops, the mythical king of Athens. She jumped to her death from the Acropolis to save Athens from a siege.
