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The ancient city of Pergamon (Πέργαμον), a UNESCO World Heritage site, was situated at the top of a mesa that formed its acropolis. The acropolis is just east of the modern city of Bergama, Turkey.
Brief History of Pergamon
Pergamon, or Pergamum, dates back to at least the 8th century BC. It came into possession of the Greeks under Xenophon in 399 BC, and was ruled by the Thracians and Attalids, both Greek dynasties, until King Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans in 133 BC.
Under the Romans, the city was greatly expanded and had a population of around 200,000 by the 2nd century. It was well-known for the Asclepeion, a healing center on the outskirts of the city, as well as its library. It was also one of the Seven Churches of Revelation.
Pergamon declined during the Byzantine period and suffered from attacks by Arabs and Seljuks. It became part of the Karasid beylik around 1300, and was conquered by the Ottomans in 1345.
Excavations at the Pergamon Acropolis
Expeditions at the Pergamon Acropolis were first carried out in 1871 under German engineer Carl Humann (1839-1896). He began formal excavations in 1878 and continued them until 1886. During this time, he discovered the Altar of Zeus, which was transported to Berlin with the permission of the Ottoman government. German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld (1853-1940) carried out further excavations from 1900 to 1911, discovering the Gymnasium, Sanctuary of Demeter, and the Lower Agora.
Another German archaeologist, Theodor Wiegand (1864-1936) resumed work at the site in 1927. This round of excavations lasted until 1939 and focused on the Asclepeion and Red Basilica, which are both covered in separate entries. Excavations took place from 1957 to 1968, and have continued uninterrupted since 1971.
Visiting the Pergamon Acropolis
The Pergamon Acropolis is open daily. Admission for foreigners is €15 (as of September 2024). Visit the official website for more info.
The best way to see the Pergamon Acropolis is to start at the top and walk down through the ruins to an exit at the bottom. If you’re with a large tour group, chances are very slim you’ll venture down into the Lower Acropolis. I suggest coming alone or hiring a private guide to see as much as possible at the site.
Cable Car to the Pergamon Acropolis
If you don’t have your own transportation, the Bergama Acropolis Cable Car (Bergama Akropol Teleferik), which opened in May 2010, can take you up to the entrance. The line is 700 meters long and only takes three minutes to ride. It’s better to ride up and walk back down through the ruins because a ticket costs a ridiculous 350₺ one-way and 500₺ return (as of September 2024). You’re better off taking a taxi.
Heroön
After passing through the tourist entrance to the Pergamon Acropolis, immediately to the left of the path is the Heroon. It’s thought to have been built during the reign of King Attalus I as a place to worship the rulers of the Attalid dynasty.
Sanctuary of Athena
As the path continues through the ruins, on the left is the Sanctuary of Athena. Built in the 4th century BC, it’s the oldest temple in the city.
The temple measured about 12.70 x 21.80 meters. It had six columns on the short side and ten on the long side, and the nave was divided into two rooms. The columns were roughly 5.25 metrers high and 75 centimeters in diameter. The distance between them was 1.62 meters. In the first half of the 2nd century BC, King Eumenes II added a two-story stoa on three sides of the temple as well as a propylon on the southeast corner. The propylon is now reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
The northern stoa of the sanctuary may have served as the famed Library of Pergamon, which has never been found. It was the second largest library in the ancient Greek world behind the Library of Alexandria in Egypt. The library was established during the 3rd century BC and held at least 200,000 scrolls. It consisted of four rooms with a 3 meter tall statue of Athena in the main reading room. According to legend, Mark Antony seized the entire collection and presented it as a gift to Cleopatra in 43 BC. The library functioned well into the Byzantine period but had already lost its importance long before.
Royal Palace at Pergamon
On the right side of the path, taking up the entire northeast corner of the city, are the foundations of the Attalid royal palace. The palace sits up against the city walls and was made up of six building complexes. It was occupied for several centuries after the Attalid dynasty.
The first complex encountered is Building Complex VI, which lies directly east of the Sanctuary of Athena. It was used as an arsenal and storage depot. It’s followed by Building Complex V and IV, which were the living quarters of the royal family. The rooms of those two complexes were situated around a peristyle courtyard and were elaborately decorated.
Building Complex III is next, but archaeologists have not been able to determine its function. Further north is Building Complex II, which was originally thought to have been a temple, but its cistern may indicate it was used as a water distribution center.
Finally, Building Complex I, which probably dates to the reign of King Eumenes II, may have been used as a barracks or living quarters for members of the court.
City Walls of Pergamon
The ancient city walls along the palace are well preserved and made of huge blocks of stone. They were probably built in the 2nd century BC. Some sections of the walls were fortified by the Byzantines, who built square towers out of rough cut stones.
Kestel Reservoir
A few breaks on the city walls adjoining the palace allow for great views of the Kestel Reservoir. It was created by the Kestel Dam (Kestel Barajı) built between 1983 and 1988 on the Kestel Creek for irrigation purposes. The dam can be seen while riding the cable car.
Arsenal
Outside the city walls to the north was the arsenal. It consisted of five adjacent rectangular wooden buildings constructed in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. They were used to store military equipment and food. 900 rounds of spherical shot in 13 different calibers were discovered there.
The path from arsenal follows the outside of the walls and back into the city. Along the way are some fantastic views of Bergama.
Temple of Trajan
The Temple of Trajan is one of the most important structures at the Pergamon Acropolis. The Temple of Trajan, or Trajaneum, was built in the 2nd century during the Roman period. Construction started during the reign of Emperor Trajan and was completed during the reign of his successor, Hadrian.
The temple provided a place to worship the Roman imperial cult as well as Zeus. It was also built to strengthen the relationship between Rome and Pergamon. It was the fourth temple dedicated to the imperial cult built in Anatolia.
Architecture of the Temple of Trajan
The Temple of Trajan sat on a marble podium 2.9 meters high. It was 18 meters wide with six columns on the short sides and nine columns on the long sides. The column capitals are of the Corinthian order.
The pediments contain relief sculptures. Part of the pediment from the back of the temple has been reconstructed atop four columns while a section of the front pediment sits on the podium.
Inside the temple, archaeologists found statues of Trajan and Hadrian. They were still standing long after the structure was destroyed, probably by an earthquake. It’s believed that the altar stood outside the temple on the front steps.
Stoas of the Temple of Trajan
Behind the temple is a stoa that has been partially reconstructed. It’s the oldest of the three stoas and sits five meters higher than the stoas on the sides. In front of it was an altar where statues of emperors once stood.
The stoas on the sides of the temple were added during the reign of Hadrian. Two high ashlar walls originally closed off the sanctuary.
The stoa to the right of the temple has an apse in which the torso of an armored statue has been placed. The original statue is in the Bergama Museum.
Western Face Building
A building once stood on the west side of the temple. It’s believed to have been an error that was part of the first phase of construction. Steps lead down from the sanctuary to what was the basement.
The wall of the building was demolished in the late 2nd century and later rebuilt, creating a barrel-vaulted basement room. The room was probably used for worship and benches were added along the walls in the 3rd century.
Substructure of the Temple of Trajan
Reconstruction of the aforementioned wall also opened up access to the vaulted substructure of the Temple of Trajan. The first two rooms to the west had painted walls and may have been used as cultic meeting halls.
The substructure serves as the foundation of the sanctuary, which sits on a space 68 meters long by 58 meters wide. Its construction was necessary due to the uneven terrain. The foundations were built with ashlar, and the walls nearest to the front of the valley reach a height of 23 meters.
During the Byzantine period, some of the vaults were converted to cisterns or warehouses. One vault was destroyed and used as a lime kiln.
Theatre of Pergamon
The Theatre of Pergamon is the steepest theatre of the ancient world and one of the highlights of visiting the Pergamon Acropolis.
The Theatre of Pergamon was built during the Hellenistic period in the middle of the 3rd century BC. It was renovated in the 2nd century BC under Eumenes II. During the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla in the early 3rd century, the theatre was clad in marble and the first few rows of seats were demolished to accommodate gladiator and animal fights.
Architecture of the Theatre of Pergamon
The Theatre of Pergamon was built in the Greek style directly into the slope of the acropolis. There are 78 rows of seats divided into three horizontal sections separated by two walkways. It had a seating capacity of 10,000 including a royal box. The stone tower above the theatre was added by the Byzantines.
The theatre was unique in that it didn’t have a stage or a stage building. This was due to lack of space as well as to preserve the beautiful views of the valley. A wooden stage that could be removed after each performance was constructed instead. This is evidenced by 64 post holes that remain.
Terrace
In front of the theatre was a colonnaded terrace. It ran north to south for 246.5 meters and was 17.4 meters wide. The terrace was supported by a series of substructures and entered through a triple gateway on the south end. Nothing remains but fragments.
Temple of Dionysus
On the north end of the terrace is the Temple of Dionysus. It was probably commissioned by Eumenes II in the 2nd century BC and most likely designed by architect Hermogenes of Priene. Dionysus, who in Pergamon had the epithet Kathegemon (the guide), was the chief god of the Attalid dynasty. The temple was damaged in the early 3rd century and was rebuilt by Emperor Caracalla.
25 marble steps led up to the temple, which sat on a podium 4.5 meters higher than the terrace. The temple itself was 13.17 meters wide and 21.6 meters long. It had an entrance porch supported by four Ionic columns with another four columns behind them. Each column was 11 meters tall and over one meter in diameter.
Altar of Zeus
After visiting the Temple of Trajan and the Theatre of Pergamon, on another terrace to the south was the site of the Altar of Zeus. It was built in 184 BC by Eumenes II to commemorate his victory over the Gauls in 190 BC. The surviving pieces of the altar were transported to Germany in 1886 with the permission of the Ottoman government. They were reconstructed and are now on display at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
The Altar of Zeus sat on a base measuring 36 x 33 meters. A 20-meter wide staircase on the western side led up to the structure. The base of the altar contained a frieze with a total length of 113 meters, making it the second-longest surviving frieze from antiquity after the frieze from the Parthenon in Athens. At the top of the stairs was a colonnaded courtyard, and the interior walls of the colonnade contained another smaller frieze.
Upper Agora
The terrace below the Altar of Zeus to the south contained the Upper Agora. Very little is known about its true function, but it contained stoas to the south and east. Many archaeologists believe civic functions were held there as well as commercial activities, hence the name Upper Agora.
Grave of Carl Humann
The most interesting feature of the Upper Agora is the grave of Carl Humann. From 1867 to 1873, Humann supervised road construction in Anatolia and used his influence to stop the destruction of ruins discovered at Pergamon. He returned to carry out excavations from 1878 to 1886, most famously at the Altar of Zeus.
Humann died in Smyrna (now Izmir) on April 12, 1896, and was buried in the Catholic cemetery. He was reinterred at Pergamon in 1967.
Roman Bath
Finally, a few steps downhill from the Upper Agora is the so-called Roman bath complex. It has never been fully excavated and has yet to be confirmed as a bath. In any case, the spot is a good place to look back at the Theatre and Temple of Trajan before continuing down to the Lower Acropolis.
Bath Lane
After visiting the Upper Acropolis, visitors follow Bath Lane from the Upper Agora past the Roman baths down to the Lower Acropolis.
3rd Century Excavations
Between the Upper and Lower Acropolis, where Bath Lane meets Main Street, are the remains of a small part of the city representative of Pergamon in the 3rd century. To excavate this area, a lower-class Byzantine settlement dating between the 12th and 14th centuries had to be documented and removed.
First is a small odeon with the Marble Hall next door. The Odeon contains ascending marble seating with a narrow stairway dividing it into two sections.
The Marble Hall was used as a cult hall. It was decorated with marble panels as well as reliefs dating back to the time of Christ’s birth. The head from a 1st century statue of a prominent citizen of Pergamon was discovered in front of the niche, but the rest of the statue was never found. Both the original reliefs and the head are on display at the Bergama Museum.
Further down Main Street was a small restaurant and store. A large cult hall dating back to the 2nd or 3rd century sat up the hill nearby. It contained podiums along the walls and a marble shelf meant for tableware.
Building Z
Building Z is an important structure at the Pergamon Acropolis. It sits at the end of the path just downhill from the 3rd century excavations, and between the Sanctuary of Demeter and Sanctuary of Hera.
Building Z dates back to the 2nd century BC and has a Hellenistic design. It covers an area of about 1,500 square meters. The original design with a peristyle courtyard and colonnaded halls was preserved into the Roman period, although a few additions and changes were made. Most of the building was destroyed by an earthquake in the late 2nd century and only a small part remained in use after that.
In the late Byzantine period, sometime between the 12th and 14th centuries, a settlement was built atop the ruins of Building Z. The structure wasn’t exposed until 1909 during excavations led by Wilhelm Dörpfeld.
In 1990, excavations revealed incredible mosaic floors dated to the Roman period. This warranted building a shelter on top of the structure, which was completed in 2004.
Mosaics of Building Z
Building Z is well worth visiting to see the mosaics although it’s not always open to the public. The mosaics can be found in the corridor and in some rooms. They’re among the best-preserved Roman mosaics in Turkey, and most contain geometric patterns.
The most impressive mosaic sits in one of the rooms on the corridor. On the outside are various geometric patterns and symbols, while the middle of the mosaic contains 16 octagonal medallions arranged in a square.
The 12 medallions on the outer part of the square depict faces of men and women of different ages expressing different emotions.
The four medallions on the inner part of the square feature animal figures. Two roosters, one red and one white, face each other on one side. The other side contains a leopard facing a tiger.
Sanctuary of Hera
After walking past Building Z is the Sanctuary of Hera, which sits on two terraces above the Upper Gymnasium. It was originally built under Attalus II in the middle of the 2nd century BC.
The temple, which sat on the upper part of the terrace, was in the Doric order with four columns at the entrance. It was seven meters wide by 12 meters long. To the west was a six-meter wide semicircular exedra with a statue platform. A rectangular colonnaded gallery sat to the east. The altar was on the lower part of the terrace in front of the steps.
Sanctuary of Demeter
The Sanctuary of Demeter is one of the oldest areas of worship at the Pergamon Acropolis. It’s located on a terrace just below and to the west of Building Z.
The Sanctuary of Demeter was continuously used for worship from the 4th century BC all the way through to the late Roman period.
Propylon of the Sanctuary of Demeter
The entrance to the sanctuary was to the east through a propylon. It was built in the late 3rd century by Queen Apollonis, the wife of King Attalus I, and two columns have been re-erected.
Courtyard of the Sanctuary of Demeter
The entrance opened onto a courtyard surrounded by stoas on three sides. To the left of the entrance was an offering pit and a fountain. To the right, along the north side of the sanctuary, was a bank of viewing stairs. They were reserved for participants in the rites of Demeter, which were mostly for important women of Pergamon. Up to 800 initiates could fit in the seats.
Wandering around the courtyard, it’s possible to see several architectural fragments laying around as well as inscriptions in Greek.
Temple at the Sanctuary of Demeter
The temple sat in the western half of the courtyard. It was built by Philetaerus, the founder of the Attalid dynasty, and his brother Eumenes, in memory of their mother, Boa. The temple, which was in the Ionic order, measured 6.45 x 12.7 meters. A porch in the Corinthian order was added during the reign of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius in the middle of the 2nd century. The altar, measuring 7 meters long by 2.3 meters wide, sat 10 meters in front of the temple.
Pergamon Gymnasium
The Pergamon Gymnasium is the largest known gymnasium of the Hellenistic world. It was built in the 2nd century BC during the reign of Eumenes II and sits on three terraces.
Upper Gymnasium
The Upper Gymnasium is located on the upper terrace and was reserved for adult males. It’s the most well-preserved section of the gymnasium and some of the columns have been partially reconstructed.
The Upper Gymnasium is the largest of the 3 terraces, measuring 150 x 70 meters. In the center of the Upper Gymnasium was the palaestra. It was surrounded by stoas on all 4 sides and measures about 36 x 74 meters.
Behind the northern stoa is odeon as well as a banquet hall. They were probably built during the Roman period. The odeon, which is on the northwest corner, had a seating capacity of 3,000.
The west side of the Upper Gymnasium contained an Ionic temple. The Romans constructed a small bath complex behind it.
The east side of the Upper Gymnasium was replaced with a Roman bath complex as well. The baths are relatively well-preserved.
Reconstruction Process
You may have noticed the photos are from two different visits. The photos in which the Upper Gymnasium is overgrown with grasses and flowers are from May 2011. The photos under drier conditions are from June 2022. Most importantly, I’d like to point out the progress made by archaeologists in that 11-year span. The two photos below were taken from the same spot. In the most recent photo, you’ll notice some re-erected columns with newer material used to fill in missing pieces. The palaestra is also full of architectural fragments waiting to be reconstructed.
Basement Stadium
Moving on to the next section of the Pergamon Gymnasium is the so-called Basement Stadium. It sits between the terraces of the Upper and Middle Gymnasiums. The Basement Stadium was a roofed structure about 212 meters long.
Middle Gymnasium
The Middle Gymnasium sat on the middle terrace measuring 250 meters long by 70 meters wide. It was reserved for adolescent boys and retained its original form from the 2nd century BC. On the east side was a small Corinthian temple dedicated to Heracles and Hermes. The names of victors are inscribed on the temple walls. There was also a running track.
Lower Gymnasium
The smallest terrace of the Pergamon Gymnasium, the Lower Gymnasium, was reserved for young boys. It’s irregularly shaped and poorly preserved. The Lower Gymnasium was accessed via a barrel-vaulted stairway. The Byzantines added towers between the Lower and Middle Gymnasiums as part of the defensive system of the city.
House of Attalus
Next, past the Lower Gymnasium is the road that winds down towards the exit of the archaeological site at the Pergamon Acropolis. A short path along the way leads uphill to the so-called House of Attalus.
Protected under the structure is a mosaic floor featuring geometric shapes and patterns. On the rear wall are frescoes representing vases, birds, and plants.
Lower Agora
Near the exit is the Lower Agora. It’s closed to the public and serves as a graveyard of archaeological fragments waiting to be reconstructed.
Unknown Structure
Finally, on my very first visit to the Pergamon Acropolis in May 2011, I wandered down a path east of the Lower Agora towards an unexcavated area. I stumbled upon a structure with four columns in front. There was no information listed at that time and I have yet to find anything relevant. During that visit, the exit was locked. Rather than walking all the way back up to the top, I managed to find a hole in the fence and climbed out (don’t tell anyone!).
