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Ephesus (Ἔφεσος / Efes) was one of the most incredible cities in the ancient world. The ruins are a popular tourist attraction and a UNESCO World Heritage site located near the town of Selçuk, Turkey.
Very Brief History of Ephesus
The ancient Greek city of Ephesus was founded in the 10th century BC. After it came under Roman rule in 129 BC, it became one of the largest cities in the ancient world. Ephesus played an important role in politics, culture, science, art, and commerce.
Ephesus was one of the Seven Churches of Revelation. It was the second most important city in the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople (now Istanbul) and held three church councils in the 5th century. When it was conquered by the Seljuks in 1090, it was only a small village. Ephesus was completely abandoned by the 15th century.
Excavations at Ephesus
Ephesus was excavated by British archaeologist John Turtle Wood (1821-1890) from 1863 to 1874, sponsored by the British Museum. Excavations resumed in 1895 under Austrian archaeologist Otto Benndorf (1838-1907), who founded the Austrian Archaeological Institute. The excavations ran uninterrupted until October 2016, when the Turkish government forced the archaeologists to stop working due to tensions between Turkey and Austria. They were allowed to resume their work in May 2018. The city has yet to be fully excavated, and it’s estimated that less than 15% has been unearthed thus far.
Visiting Ephesus
The Ephesus archaeological site attracts an average of 1.5 million visitors annually and is open daily. Admission for foreigners is 40€ (as of April 2024) and includes entry to the Ephesus Experience. The Terrace Houses are not included on a standard ticket.
Most visitors to Ephesus will start exploring from the south entrance. This is the suggested route because the walk is downhill, making it much easier than entering from the north. It’s a good idea to take water with you.
Tour buses drop off visitors at the south entrance and pick them up from the north entrance. Once exiting the archaeological site from the north entrance, you’ll find several souvenir shops and snack bars.
Outside the south entrance to Ephesus is a ticket office. After purchasing tickets and passing through security, it’s possible to see a scale model of the city.
Structures Outside the South Entrance of Ephesus
There are a few structures outside the south entrance of the archaeological site. They’re not open to the public but visible from the road or parking lot.
Magnesian Gate
The Magnesian Gate sits on the righthand side of the road on the way to the south entrance. It was one of three main gates to the city and was originally built in the 3rd century BC. It was 3.7 meters wide and opened to a courtyard measuring 22.8 x 25 meters. Towers sat on each side of the gate, which was discovered around 1869 by John Turtle Wood as he searched for the Temple of Artemis. Excavation is ongoing. I’ll try to get a better picture on my next visit.
East Gymnasium
Just north of the Magnesian Gate is the East Gymnasium. It was one of the largest buildings in Ephesus and may have been built by Flavius Damianus in the 2nd century. Its purpose was for young boys to exercise and learn about sports, music, astronomy, and more. Only boys between the ages of 6 and 16 were accepted. The complex included baths and an auditorium and covered an area of about 14,000 square meters. Statues excavated at the site are on display at the Izmir Archaeology Museum.
“St. Luke’s Grave” Roman Fountain
In the parking lot across the street from the south entrance is a fenced-off area containing the remains of a Roman fountain. It was built in the 2nd century and consists of a podium with a monopteros of 16 columns and a water basin. Around the beginning of the 6th century, it was converted to a church with a crypt. A figure of a humpbacked ox and a cross at the southern entrance to the crypt misled 19th century archaeologists into believing the structure was St. Luke’s grave, hence the modern name. The church was used until the 13th or 14th century.
State Agora
The first area visitors will see inside the gates of the archaeological site is the State Agora, which is to the left just inside the entrance. It was built by the Romans in the 1st century BC, replacing a 6th century BC agora built by the Greeks. The Greek agora is buried two meters underneath the Roman agora.
The State Agora was reconstructed in the 3rd century under Caracalla and again in the late 4th century under Theodosius I. It wasn’t used for commerce, but rather as a public meeting place to discuss governmental issues. It was surrounded on all four sides by stoas and contained a temple in the center.
Temple on the State Agora
Only the foundations remain from the Temple on the State Agora. There were ten columns on the long side and six on the short side. During excavations, votive offerings to the Egyptian goddess Isis were found. Because of this, it was originally thought to have been dedicated to Isis, built in 42 BC for the visit of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and destroyed sometime during the reign of Augustus because of its ties to Egypt.
More recent theories suggest the temple was actually built during the end of the reign of Augustus in 14 AD or the beginning of the reign of Tiberius in 15 AD. It’s believed to have been a sanctuary of the Association of the Roman Citizens and dedicated to Divus Caesar and Dea Roma, or to Augustus. The temple was demolished in late antiquity.
So-called Fountain
Along the road on the south side of the State Agora is the So-called Fountain. It was a large semi-circular tank at the terminus of the Marnas Aqueduct and was completed in 92/93 during the proconsulship of P. Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus. The tank was used for storing and distributing water to the city and was referred to as a nymphaeum, based on an inscription.
The structure was enlarged in the 2nd century with the addition of two side wings and a fountain basin in front. It was heavily damaged and renovated around 340 by Proconsul L. Caelius Montius. Fragments of decorative statues were discovered during excavation by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in 1908.
Hydrekdocheion
The Hydrekdocheion, also known as the Water Palace, is at a major intersection on the southwest corner of the State Agora. It was a fountain donated by Proconsul Gaius Laecanius Bassus around 80 AD. It had a rectangular basin measuring 105 square meters with three-story façades on three sides. The fourth side had a draw basin in front. Continuing downhill (north) from the fountain takes you down to Domitian Square.
Upper Baths
The Upper Baths sit northeast of the State Agora. They were built in the 2nd century and were probably built atop an earlier Hellenistic period bath. The Upper Baths were a place for visitors to wash and disinfect before entering the city.
The Upper Baths consisted of four bathing rooms on the northern side. The westernmost room was the caldarium, or hot room, which had seven niches with bathing pools. On the west and south sides were colonnades with mosaic floors used as lobbies and recreation rooms. A palaestra, or exercise area, may exist in the unexcavated section to the south.
The Upper Baths are one of four bath complexes in Ephesus. They were incorrectly identified as the Baths of Varius for many years. Excavation started in 1927 and is still ongoing.
Basilica Stoa
The columns along the north side of the State Agora were part of the Basilica Stoa. It was built in 11 AD and was funded by wealthy Ephesian Gauis Sextilius Pollio. The structure was a rectangular building 160 meters long. It was connected to the Upper Baths via three gates opening onto a stoa.
The Basilica Stoa featured Ionic columns decorated with figures of bulls’ heads. It was converted into a church in the 4th century and destroyed by an earthquake shortly after. The structure was never rebuilt and was excavated in 1965.
The Basilica Stoa was originally a place where the praetor, a Roman magistrate, solved court cases and disagreements. Statues of Augustus and his wife, Livia, were unearthed at the Basilica Stoa and are on display at the Ephesus Museum in Selçuk.
Odeon
Behind the Basilica Stoa is the Odeon. It was built in the 2nd century by Publius Vedius Antoninus and his wife, Flavia Paiana. It’s a semi-circular building that served as both a concert hall and Bouleuterion. The Odeon likely collapsed during a major earthquake in the 4th century.
The Odeon had a capacity of 1,500 and five entrances. Three of them opened onto the stage, which was backed by a two-story building and covered with a wooden roof. If you look closely, you’ll find a cross carved into the lintel of one of the doorways.
The seating area of the Odeon was divided into an upper and lower section with a walkway between them. Seats in the lower section were wider and reserved for dignitaries. Corridors on each side of the building provided access to the upper level.
As previously mentioned, the Odeon also served as the Bouleuterion, which was where the boule, or advisory council of the city, would meet. The boule was appointed by the aristocratic class of Ephesus and was in charge of constructing public buildings and running them as well as collecting taxes to maintain them.
Prytaneum
Just west of the Odeon is the Prytaneum, which was an administrative building originally built in the 3rd century BC. What remains of the structure dates to the reign of Augustus.
The Prytaneum served somewhat like the executive branch of the city. The prytanis had to approve all decisions and laws made by the boule and was the absolute religious and political power. Religious ceremonies, banquets, and official receptions were often held there. A residential building or banquet hall excavated just west of the Prytaneum may have been related to its function.
The section just west of the Odeon contained two small temples dedicated to either a deified Julius Caesar and the goddess Roma or Augustus and the goddess Artemis. A sacred flame was kept in the center of the ceremonial hall. The flame was kept burning at all times by the Curetes, who were priestesses of the goddess Hestia.
Interesting Features at the State Agora
If you’re on a tour, a good guide will point out a few interesting features at the State Agora.
Clay Pipes
On the east side of the State Agora is a cistern. There are clay pipes in the ground and a pile of pipe fragments. These clay pipes were part of the city’s plumbing system and were installed around the 5th century. They were glued together using a combination of egg whites, clay dust, and marble dust. Clay pipes replaced lead pipes after the Romans discovered lead is toxic.
ΙΧΘΥΣ
The most important is a stone with Greek letters spelling out ΙΧΘΥΣ and a fish symbol. ΙΧΘΥΣ, also spelled ΙΧΘΥϹ, translates to fish, but is actually an acronym that stands for Jesus Christ God’s Son Savior (Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς Θεοῦ Υἱὸς Σωτήρ). It was used as an early Christian symbol and marked on homes for Christians to recognize other believers.
Column Building 101
Other guides will point out column drums to demonstrate how the ancient Greeks and Romans assembled columns. Each drum had a hole in the center. When the drums were stacked, builders would pour molten iron down the center to create a rod. The solidified rod would hold the entire column in place.
Gametime
One of the important pastimes in Ephesus was a game similar to backgammon. Look carefully and you’ll notice game boards carved into marble fragments or on stones in front of buildings.
Scenic Viewpoint
Finally, make sure you make it to the scenic viewpoint on the northwest corner of the State Agora. You can reach it by walking the length of the Basilica Stoa. From there, you’ll get a fantastic view of the rest of Ephesus.
Sacred Way
After the Prytaneum, visitors get a good look at the Sacred Way, which is a paved road descending into the city. It was the processional route between Ephesus and the Temple of Artemis and runs through the entire city. From the temple, it passes through the Magnesian Gate past the State Agora and down to Domitian Square. The path continues down what archaeologists call Curetes Street, turning right at the Marble Road and eventually leading all the way to the harbor.
Along this stretch of the Sacred Way, there’s evidence of a street torch, with the rings used to hold the torch in place still attached to the ground. You can also spot canals that were used in the city’s sewer system as well as ancient column fragments recycled for use in later buildings.
Domitian Square
Before connecting to Curetes Street, the Sacred Way passes through Domitian Square. It was a busy commercial area in ancient times.
Domitian Square has not been fully excavated, but it contains several buildings that would have been used as shops. The square also contained important temples and monuments.
Hospital
First, on the left side of Domitian Square, is a small building. Next to it is an interesting stone carving. One side depicts Hermes holding a ram’s head and a staff. The other side contains the caduceus, a traditional symbol of medicine featuring two snakes winding around a winged staff.
Although archaeologists have yet to determine the purpose of the building, the carvings may indicate it was used as a hospital. If so, it’s quite possible Rufus of Ephesus served there.
Nike Relief
Opposite the hospital is a stone relief of Nike. It was used as a capital of the Hercules Gate on Curetes Street. The goddess of victory is represented with wings and holding a golden palm leaf. To be honest, I don’t understand why it’s not protected in a museum and is instead out exposed to the elements.
Pollio Monument
Continuing clockwise around the square, next is the honorific burial of wealthy Ephesian Gaius Sextilius Pollio, who funded the construction of the Basilica Stoa on the State Agora. It was constructed in 13 AD by his stepson, Gaius Offillius Proculus. The base measuring 8 x 6.5 meters in dimension and 6.4 meters in height is all that remains of the original Pollio Monument.
Fountain of Domitian
The Fountain of Domitian incorporated part of the Pollio Monument when it was constructed in 92/93 AD. The niche once contained a group of statues depicting the blinding of the Cyclops by Odysseus and his men.
The wide arch towering above thas been reconstructed. The surviving statues that once adorned the fountain are now on display in the Ephesus Museum.
Temple of Domitian
On the south end of the square is the Temple of Domitian. It was built in the late 1st century during the reign of Domitian and was the first temple in Ephesus dedicated to a Roman emperor. Recent evidence suggests it may have originally been built in honor of Titus.
The temple was built on a terrace measuring 85.6 x 64.5 meters. It was supported by a vaulted substructure behind a façade three stories high and decorated with around 40 figures of deities. Figures depicting Attis and Isis are the only two that have survived. Stairs behind the façade lead up to the terrace where the temple stood. It’s closed to the public.
The temple itself measured 34 x 24 meters with 8 columns at each end and 13 along the sides. A large U-shaped altar sat in front of the temple while a colossal statue of Domitian stood in the sanctuary. Part of the altar as well as the head and left arm of the statue are on display in the Ephesus Museum in Selçuk.
Domitian was a brutal dictator and very unpopular in Ephesus. When he was assassinated, Ephesians celebrated by erasing his name from every building in the city and all public records. They also rededicated the temple to his father, Vespasian. The Temple of Domitian was completely dismantled during the Byzantine period and was first excavated in 1930 by Austrian archaeologist Josef Keil (1878-1963).
Inscriptions Museum
Following the road leading south from Domitian Square leads to the Inscriptions Museum. It’s housed in part of the vaulted substructure of the Temple of Domitian.
The Inscriptions Museum contains over 3,000 complete and partial inscriptions excavated at Ephesus. A selected exhibition of 60 of the best preserved inscriptions are on display inside. They include a death sentence for sacrilegious behavior, the rights of Hellenistic citizens, funerary inscriptions, honorific inscriptions, and imperial decrees.
Unfortunately, the museum is usually locked and there’s no information on hours or how to gain entrance. A few pieces are scattered in the yard in front of the gate. Continuing along the road and to the left leads back to the State Agora.
Memmius Monument
Heading back down to Domitian Square, on the north side is the Memmius Monument. It was built sometimes between 50 BC and 30 BC by Roman senator Memmius, who was serving as governor of the Roman province of Asia at the time. He was the son of Roman poet Gaius Memmius and the grandson of Sulla, who was seen as a great hero by the Ephesians. Sulla was the Roman general who liberated Ephesus from Mithridates VI and the Kingdom of Pontus during the First Mithridatic War in 87 BC.
The original appearance of the Memmius Monument is unknown, but it’s thought to have been a two-story structure with a conical roof. It has been partially reconstructed based on speculation. It features sculptures of male figures believed to be Gaius Memmius and Sulla.
Hydreion
The Hydreion is a fountain attached to the west side of the Memmius Monument. It was built around the year 200 by T. Flavius Meander. The Hydreion consisted of two basins in a semi-circular niche. The façade featured three arches supported by four Corinthian columns. It was decorated by four statues depicting Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius Chlorus. They were ordered by Diocletian when he became emperor in the late 3rd century.
Byzantine Period Shops
Finally, before heading down Curetes Street, are some Byzantine period shops excavated in 2023. They sit opposite the Hydreion and behind the Nike relief. There was no information available at the site, and our guide mentioned the shops will probably be covered by earth for protection once excavations are complete.
Curetes Street
Curetes Street was one of the main streets in Ephesus. It runs between Domitian Square and the Marble Road and was part of the Sacred Way.
Curetes Street was lined with stoas on both sides. Behind the stoas were shops, fountains, homes, and monuments. It was maintained and used until around the 7th century.
The street runs for about 210 meters and is paved with marble. It’s between 6.8 and 10 meters wide, and descends about 20 meters along the entire length.
Walking down the street today, it’s lined with columns as well as pedestals that may have held statues. Many have inscriptions in Greek.
Hercules Gate
The Hercules Gate was the official entrance to Curetes Street. It features two monumental pillars with figures of Hercules. They both stand 2.63 meters high.
Although the pillars were carved in the 1st or 2nd century, the gate wasn’t constructed until the 4th century. Its purpose was to pedestrianize Curetes Street by narrowing access and preventing chariots from entering.
Fountain of Trajan
Further down on the right is the Fountain of Trajan, which was built between 102 and 114 in honor of Emperor Trajan. It was financed by Tiberius Claudius Aristion and Iulia Lydia Laterane. The fountain was reconstructed in the late 4th century during the reign of Theodosius I. It was first excavated in 1958.
The fountain was one of the most magnificent structures in Ephesus. It featured a statue of Trajan standing on a globe in the central niche, overlooking a pool measuring 20 x 10 meters. It also included statues of Aphrodite, Dionysus, and the mythical founder of the city, Androklos. All of the statues are on display at the Ephesus Museum.
Alytarch’s Stoa
A short walk down on the left is Alytarch’s Stoa. It was built in the 4th or 5th century and enclosed a row of 12 shops, some with frescoes painted on the walls.
The hall is about five meters wide and was decorated with a beautiful mosaic floor measuring roughly 285 square meters. The stoa was built on two levels because of the slope of the street. Behind it are the remains of Terrace House 1.
Temple of Hadrian
Directly across from Alytarch’s Stoa is the entrance porch to the Temple of Hadrian. It’s the best preserved structure on Curetes Street and one of the finest in Ephesus. The main room of the temple has not survived intact, and it’s thought a statue of Hadrian stood inside.
The Temple of Hadrian was built sometime between 133 and 138 by Publius Quintilius Valens Varius to honor Roman Emperor Hadrian, who visited the city from Athens in 128. It was also dedicated to Artemis and the people of Ephesus. In reality, the structure was more of a monument than a temple.
Emperor Theodosius I had the structure rebuilt in the late 4th century to honor his father, Theodosius the Elder. He added the frieze reliefs around the inside along the top of the door frames (see below).
The Temple of Hadrian was discovered in 1956 by Austrian archaeologist Franz Miltner (1901-1959). The entrance porch was reconstructed between 1957 and 1958.
Features of the Temple of Hadrian
The façade of the Temple of Hadrian features four Corinthian columns with a figure of Tyche on the keystone of the arch. Reliefs of acanthus leaves and other figures decorate the supports and arch. Above the inner door is a figure of Medusa.
The four pedestals in front were added in the late 3rd century. They were topped by copper statues of Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius I, and Galerius. Theodosius I replaced the statue of Maximian for a statue of his father. The statues survived but have never been found.
The aforementioned frieze reliefs depict the foundation of Ephesus as well as Apollo, Athena, and several members of Theodosius’ family. All of the friezes and figures are copies, and the originals are on display at the Ephesus Museum.
Scholasticia Baths
Surrounding the Temple of Hadrian are the Scholasticia Baths. The baths were originally built in the early 2nd century as the Varius Baths by Publius Quintilius Valens Varius and his wife. They were renovated in the 4th century by a rich Christian woman named Scholasticia using stones brought from the Prytaneum. A statue of Scholasticia, discovered in 1955, can be seen at the site.
The baths had two entrances. One was directly off Curetes Street to the right of the Temple of Hadrian while the other was from an alley off Marble Street discovered in 1926.
The Scholasticia Baths were the largest in Ephesus, covering an area of 13,751 square meters. They were estimated to be three stories high with capacity for 1,000 customers. In addition to the bathing rooms, they contained a library and entertainment rooms. There were also private rooms if visitors chose to stay for multiple days.
A wooden walkway set up on the west end of the Scholasticia Baths is a must for visitors. This is where you can get one of the best photos of the Library of Celsus.
Latrines
The latrines are a favorite of many visitors to Ephesus. They were part of the Scholasticia Baths but were also for public use.
Originally built in the 1st century, the latrines were often used by poor citizens of the city who didn’t have toilets in their own homes. A guide told us that during winter, wealthier visitors would sometimes have a slave sit on their toilet to warm it for them.
There were 3 rows of toilets along 3 sides of a square room, with 48 toilets each. The toilets were holes cut into a marble bench, each separated by partitions with armrests. People wouldn’t immediately leave after finishing their business. They would sit and discuss politics and other important subjects with other customers.
Visitors were given sticks with sponges attached to clean themselves after using the toilets. Before using the sponges, they would wash them in fresh water running through the drain in front of the toilets. The sponges were kept submerged in vinegar for hygiene. A fee was charged to use the toilets.
In the center of the latrines was a sunken pool used to catch rainwater. This helped with cleaning and kept the room cool in the summer. In the winter, the room was heated by an underground system funneling in steam from the Scholasticia Baths. The floor was covered with mosaics.
Terrace Houses
Back across Curetes Street is the entrance to the Terrace Houses. They were occupied by wealthy Ephesians between the 1st and 7th centuries. It costs extra to visit the them and they’re covered in a separate post.
Octagon
The Octagon sits in front of the Terrace Houses. According to an interpretation, the Octagon was a monument to Arsinoe IV, the younger sister and rival of Cleopatra. Arsinoe IV was co-ruler of Egypt with her brother, Ptolemy XII, from September 48 BC to January 47 BC. She was defeated by Julius Caesar and Cleopatra during the Siege of Alexandria, taken to Rome as prisoner, and banished to Ephesus. When Mark Antony and Cleopatra visited the city in 41 BC, they had Arsinoe IV poisoned with arsenic.
The Octagon contained a burial chamber with a marble sarcophagus. In 1926, the skeleton of a 15 to 18 year old girl was found inside. One theory says the skeleton could have belonged to Arsinoe IV, but it has not yet been proven.
Next to the Octagon is an inscription detailing a tax law under Emperors Valentinian I, Valens, and Gratian. It was written in the 2nd half of the 4th century.
Heroon of Androklos
Also in front of the Terrace Houses and to the right of the Octagon is the Heroon of Androklos. It was built in the 2nd century BC as a monument to the mythical founder of Ephesus, Androklos.
Hadrian’s Gate
Hadrian’s Gate sits at the Triodos, which is an intersection of three major streets. This includes the west end of Curetes Street and the south end of the Marble Road. It was probably built around 117 AD. The gate had no real association with Hadrian, who visited Ephesus in 130 AD, other than its similar style to Hadrian’s Arch in Athens.
Hadrian’s Gate was made of white marble and had three arches. It was originally almost 17 meters tall and 11.5 meters wide. There was a wide central arch flanked by two narrower entrances. It collapsed around the late 3rd or early 4th century and was rebuilt in the 4th or 5th century. An inscription indicates that at that time, a Christian named Demeas removed a statue of Artemis and inscribed a cross on the arch.
Hadrian’s Gate was excavated in 1904. German architect and archaeologist Hilke Thür completed a theoretical restoration of the gate in 1986. It was partially reconstructed between 1987 and 1994 by Austrian architect and archaeologist Friedmund Hueber.
Library of Celsus
The Library of Celsus is one of the most famous buildings in Ephesus. It’s located at the intersection of Curetes Street and the Marble Road.
The Library of Celsus was commissioned by Gaius Julius Aquila (c. 70-120) in memory of his father, Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus (c. 45 – c. 114), commonly known as Celsus. Celsus was a Greek Roman citizen and proconsul of the Roman province of Asia in 105. He’s buried in a sarcophagus underneath the library floor, but the burial chamber is not open to the public. Construction started in 117 but Aquila died before it was completed. Tiberius Claudius Aristion, the executor of Celsus’ will, took over construction and completed the building in 135.
The Library of Celsus was the third largest library in the Roman world behind Alexandria and Pergamon. It contained over 12,000 scrolls. An auditorium was built between the entrance and the Marble Road during the reign of Hadrian. It was used for lectures and presentations.
The library was destroyed by fire in 262 and was never rebuilt. The façade became part of a fountain and was restored around the beginning of the 5th century, but was destroyed by an earthquake during the Byzantine period. The library was excavated from 1905 to 1906 and the façade was reconstructed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute, led by German archaeologist Volker Michael Strocka, between 1970 and 1978.
Façade
The is 17 meters high and 21 meters wide, featuring a 2-story colonnaded porch. It’s intricately decorated with reliefs, statues, and columns. The columns at the sides are shorter than the ones in the middle, giving the illusion that the building is actually bigger than it is.
Nine steps lead up to the three entrances, which were flanked by four statues of the female personifications of virtues: Sophia (wisdom), Episteme (knowledge), Ennoia (intelligence) and Arete (excellence). All four statues are copies. The original statues were taken to the Ephesos Museum in Vienna in 1910.
The will of Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus is inscribed in Greek on the far left side of the façade, just above the statue of Sophia. It indicates how much money he bequeathed for the library and that Tiberius Claudius Aristion, the executor of the will, completed the construction.
Finally, if you look closely on the steps of the library, you’ll notice a carving of a menorah. It dates to sometime during the Roman Imperial period.
Reading Room
The rectangular reading room of the Library of Celsus measures roughly 17 by 11 meters. It may seem surprisingly small for such an important library, but there were two upper galleries running along the perimeter of the room. A second set of walls was built around the library to keep the temperature constant and to prevent humidity.
Scrolls were kept in cupboards placed into the niches on the walls. The large central apse may have been decorated with paintings and a statue. Interestingly, a secret tunnel leads from the library to a building nearby that was thought to have been a brothel.
Gate of Mazeus and Mithridates
The structure to the right of the library is the Gate of Mazeus and Mithridates. It’s a triumphal arch built around 3 BC by two freed slaves, Mazeus and Mythridates, to honor Roman Emperor Augustus, who freed them and sent them to Ephesus to serve the Roman Empire. It opens to the Commercial Agora.
An addition was made to the north side of the gate in the middle of the 1st century. It collapsed during an earthquake in the 13th century. The gate was first excavated in 1903. It was reconstructed between 1982 and 1988 with funding provided by Anton Kallinger-Prskawetz.
Inscriptions on the Gate of Mazeus and Mithridates
The dedicatory inscription is divided into three parts above the gate, and the letters were originally inlaid with bronze. They honor Augustus and his wife Livia Drusilla (59 BC – 29 AD), his son-in-law Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (c. 63 BC – 12 BC), and his daughter Julia (39 BC – 14 AD). The inscriptions on the left and right sides are in Latin. They’re signed by Mazeus on the left and Mithridates on the right.
The inscription over the central arch is in Greek. It’s dedicated by Mazeus and Mithridates to their patrons and the city. Just above the central arch is a figure of Aphrodite with another inscription underneath.
Further inscriptions were added to the gate over the centuries. They included market regulations, official announcements, and more. One minor detail to look out for is an inscription in Greek under the right arch of the gate. It warns “he who urinates in this place will be pursued by the avenging spirit of the goddess Hecate“.
Marble Road
The Marble Road was one of the main streets running through Ephesus. It links Curetes Street with the Arcadian Way, passing the Library of Celsus and the Commercial Agora.
The Marble Road was built in the 1st century and was reconstructed in the 5th century. It was originally part of the Sacred Way leading to the Temple of Artemis. The road was very busy and saw lots of traffic, including chariots. Busts and statues of important people used to line the road along with imperial decrees.
Advertisements on the Marble Road
One of the most interesting features of the Marble Road is an advertisement for the brothel etched into the street. It depicts a left footprint, a heart, a woman, and a coin purse. This has been interpreted as a customer can buy love on the lefthand side of the road. Further down the road you can see an advertisement for a gladiatorial contest.
So-Called House of Pleasure
Across the street from the Library of Celsus is the So-Called House of Pleasure. The building was believed to have functioned as a brothel because of an inscription over the entrance. Also, a statue of Priapus with an oversized phallus was found in the ruins. The statue is now on display at the Ephesus Museum.
The brothel was used from the 1st century BC through the 3rd century. The current structure was probably built in the 1st century. The ground floor contained a hall for socializing while the second floor was where women took their customers. A small pool next to the reception hall was for men to wash their hands and feet before entering the brothel.
Commercial Agora
The Commercial Agora was the most important trade center in Ephesus and one of the most important in the ancient world. Goods from all over the Roman Empire and beyond were shipped to the harbor and taken there to be sold. It was also where Ephesus held its slave market, which was the second largest in the world.
The Commercial Agora was originally built by the Greeks in the 3rd century BC. The Roman agora we see today dates from the middle of the 1st century during the reigns of Claudius and Nero. At that time, it was redesigned and rebuilt, and the ground level was raised two to three meters.
The Commercial Agora was destroyed by an earthquake in the late 4th century and rebuilt using parts of other buildings in Ephesus. In the 6th century, a retaining wall was built along the northern hall.
The Roman agora was discovered during an excavation from 1901 to 1907, while the Greek agora underneath was discovered in 1977. The Greek agora was only half the size of the Roman agora.
Features of the Commercial Agora
The Commercial Agora was an open square with each side measuring 110 meters (360 feet). Stoas with two aisles and two stories surrounded the agora. In the center was a sundial and water clock. At the southwest corner was the Temple of Serapis, which is closed to the public.
There were three gates to the Commercial Agora: the Gate of Mazaeus and Mithridates next to the Library of Celsus on the southeast corner; a gate opening to the harbor on the west side; and another leading to the Great Theatre on the northeast corner.
Behind the stoas were shops. Shop owners displayed stone tablets outside their shops to indicate their trade. It’s possible to see some reconstructed shops as well as original unrestored shops to get an idea of their size.
Ephesus Experience
Just north of the Commercial Agora is the Ephesus Experience. It’s not connected to the archaeological site but provides an entertaining high-tech walk through ancient Ephesus. Entry is included with admission to the archaeological site. I didn’t visit because at the time admission was extra and it cost more than admission to Ephesus itself. I’ll check it out next time.
Great Theatre of Ephesus
The Great Theatre of Ephesus was one of the largest theatres in the ancient world. It’s located at the intersection of the Marble Road and the Arcadian Way.
The Great Theatre was built by the Greeks in the 3rd century BC. Construction took about 60 years. The Romans later enlarged it and made some adjustments to the design. A series of earthquakes damaged the theatre in the 4th century, and by the 8th century it became part of the city’s defense system.
The Great Theatre of Ephesus In the Bible
The Great Theatre of Ephesus was the scene of a riot when Paul tried to preach to the Ephesians in 56. A silversmith named Demetrius provoked his fellow tradesmen to lash out against Paul because their business depended on selling statues of Artemis to tourists. They believed the new Christian religion would threaten their income, therefore the riot was based more on economics than religion. The New Testament mentions the event in Acts 19:23-45.
Seating Area of the Great Theatre of Ephesus
The theatre is the largest in Anatolia and has a capacity of 25,000 people. It contains 66 rows of seats. Two walkways divide the seating area into three horizontal sections. The third tier was added in the middle of the 3rd century.
The theatre is 30 meters high and 145 meters in diameter. It was built so spectators could view the stage in front and the harbor in the background.
Stage of the Great Theatre of Ephesus
The stage building was 18 meters high. It was built during the reign of Nero in the middle of the 1st century. Statues and reliefs were added in the early 2nd century during the reign of Trajan. It was originally two stories high with a third story added in the 3rd century.
The stage itself measured 25 by 40 meters and contained columns with statues of gods, goddesses, and emperors. There were five entrances to the stage via a long corridor underneath the stage building.
Uses of the Great Theatre of Ephesus
The Great Theatre of Ephesus was initially used for concerts, plays, political events, religious ceremonies, and philosophical discussions. Under Roman rule, gladiator and animal fights also took place. The Romans would charge for admission, with events starting early in the morning and lasting until midnight.
The theatre is still used for concerts today. Elton John, Sting, Diana Ross, Mikis Theodorakis, and Ray Charles are among the artists to feature there.
Arcadian Way
The Arcadian Way, also known as Harbor Street or the Arcadiane, was one of the main roads in Ephesus. It ran between the harbor and Great Theatre, intersecting at the Marble Road.
The Arcadian Way was 530 meters long and 11.5 meters wide. It was originally built by the Greeks and was lined with shops behind stoas along both sides. The Arcadian Way received its name from a restoration during the reign of Arcadius in the early 5th century. By the 6th century, the Arcadian Way was lit by 50 torches, making it one of three streets in the Roman Empire to include street lighting, along with other streets in Rome and Antioch.
The street was paved with marble and beautifully decorated with statues and colonnades. This was meant to impress dignitaries arriving from other cities, as most visitors would enter Ephesus from the harbor. The street was a favorite of such visitors as Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
The Arcadian Way was discovered in 1899 by Austrian archaeologists. Its entire length is closed to the public because several areas along it have not yet been excavated or researched.
Theatre Gymnasium
On the north side of the Arcadian Way is the Theatre Gymnasium, which was one of four gymnasiums in the city. It was built in 125 and had a total area of 12,000 square meters. The complex consisted of bathing rooms on the north side surrounded by recreational rooms. An open courtyard, or palaestra, sat to the south, allowing athletes a space to train physically and mentally. The Theatre Gymnasium has been partially excavated and is one of the best places to view the Great Theatre.
Milestones
Continuing towards the harbor is a field displaying a collection of sarcophagi and milestones. The milestones were used to indicate the distance to other cities in the Roman Empire.
Harbor Baths/Gymnasium
The Harbor Baths and Harbor Gymnasium sat in a complex at the other end of the Arcadian Way near the harbor. They were built in the late 1st century during the reign of Domitian and covered an area of 70,000 square meters. One of the main benefactors was Tiberius Claudius Aristion. The complex was reconstructed after an earthquake in 262 and again in 350.
The Harbor Gymnasium featured a training area measuring 240 x 200 meters surrounded by a 3-aisled colonnaded. The colonnaded has been named the Halls of Verulanus because Imperial priest Claudius Verulanus donated the marble revetment of the colonnade walls. The open-air square in the middle was landscaped with trees and used for various sport and leisure activities.
According to some historians, the crew and passengers of all ships arriving in Ephesus were required to bathe at the complex before being allowed to enter the city. Excavation is ongoing and the ruins are closed to the public.
Road to the Church of Mary
The road leading from the Arcadian Way to the north entrance of Ephesus contains a path diverting to the left. It leads to the Church of Mary, which was the very first church in the world dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
Residential Area
The first thing along the path is a field full of foundations of a residential area. It was open to the elements in June 2022 and had been covered up by earth on another visit in November 2023. Archaeologists completed excavations and covered the area for protection.
Bishop’s Palace
Immediately east of the Church of Mary are the remains of the Bishop’s Palace. It was built in the 5th century and was 140 meters long by 30 meters wide, making it almost the size of the original church.
The Bishop’s Palace takes up what was the eastern half of the south stoa of the Olympieion. It had a colonnaded courtyard surrounded by several rooms, including the bishop’s private quarters, a bath, and an audience chamber. The Olympieion has not been excavated and lies down a road past the Bishop’s Palace.
Church of Mary
The Church of Mary was built in the early 5th century. It takes up what was the western half of the south stoa of the Olympieion and appears to have been built atop the ruins of a 2nd century Roman basilica-style building. It was a columned church that measured 145 meters long by 30 meters wide.
The Church of Mary hosted the Third Ecumenical Council, also known as the Council of Ephesus, in June and July 431. It was called by Theodosius II and over 250 bishops attended. During the council, the original Nicene Creed of 325 was confirmed, and the title of Theotokos was accepted for the Mother of God.
In the 7th century, the seat of the Bishop of Ephesus was transferred to the Basilica of Saint John. The Church of Mary continued to be used into the Middle Ages as a funerary church. The ruins were discovered in the 1920s by Austrian archaeologists.
Apse of the Church of Mary
Today’s entrance to the Church of Mary is from the east next to the apse, which contains a synthronon six meters in diameter. A plaque on the back wall of the apse indicates Pope Paul VI prayed there on July 26, 1967.
On either side of the apse were two rooms used for liturgical purposes. Each room held spiral staircases allowing access to the upper gallery.
Nave of the Church of Mary
In 557, an earthquake destroyed the original columned Church of Mary. The eastern section of the original nave was rebuilt into a much smaller pillared church with a narthex to the west. The nave of this church was 23 meters long and the narthex was 5 meters wide. The narthex became a privileged burial space.
To the west of the pillared church, a domed church was built entirely of brick in what was the western end of the original nave. It measured 37 meters long and had 4 large pillars supporting a dome above a central nave. Another narthex was added to this church, turning the original narthex into an exonarthex.
Narthex of the Church of Mary
The entrance to the narthex of the original Church of Mary was through a large door containing floral patterns and Greek inscriptions. It opened onto an atrium further to the west.
Atrium of the Church of Mary
The atrium, at the western end of the church, consisted of a peristyle courtyard. On the western side of the atrium is an apse that was part of the original Roman basilica.
Looking down at the ground, it’s easy to tell the floor of the atrium was paved with fragments of other buildings. Some contain inscriptions while others contain graffiti.
Baptistry of the Church of Mary
The final section of the Church of Mary is the baptistry, which sits to the north of the atrium. It had an octagonal shape with four entrances. In the center is a 6th-7th century baptismal pool with a double staircase allowing for baptism by immersion.
Exploring the rest of the baptistry, there are more slabs on the floor with inscriptions, both in Greek and Latin. There are also two small rooms to the west.
Structures Outside the North Entrance of Ephesus
There are a few structures outside the north entrance of the archaeological site. They’re not open to the public and sit behind a fence. They’re visible from the road.
Stadium
A single arch is all that’s left of the stadium. It was a U-shaped structure with a monumental entrance to the west. It was originally built by the Greeks and enlarged during the reign of Nero in the 1st century. The stadium was 230 meters long and 40 meters wide with a capacity of 13,000.
Under the Greeks, the stadium was used for ceremonies and sporting events. During the 3rd and 4th centuries, under the Romans, it was also used for gladiator and animal fights as well as throwing Christians to the lions.
When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 413, a church was built into its west end. The stadium was eventually dismantled. Its parts were used in the construction of the Basilica of Saint John and to restore other buildings in Ephesus.
Vedius Gymnasium
Finally, just north of the stadium was the Vedius Gymnasium. It was built by Publius Vedius Antoninus and his wife Flavia Papiana and opened sometime between 147 and 149. The gymnasium was dedicated to Artemis and Emperor Antoninus Pius. The complex measured 135 meters by 85 meters and covered a total area of 13,000 square meters. It was renovated in the 4th century and used until the end of the 5th century.
The gymnasium was destroyed by fire in the 6th century. It was excavated in 1928 and several important statues were found. Some are on display in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums and others in the Izmir Archaeology Museum.
